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The  University  of  Chicago  Publications 
in  Religious  Education 

EDITED   BY 

ERNEST  D.    BURTON  SHAILER  MATHEWS 

THEODORE  G.   SOARES 


HANDBOOKS  OF  ETHICS  AND  RELIGION 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 
IN  THE  MODERN  WORLD 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


THE  BAKER  &  TAYLOR  COMPANY 

BIW  TORS 


THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON  AND  EDIVBUBSH 

THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 

TOKYO,   OSAKA,    KTOTO,   FUKUOKA,   SINDAI 

THE  MISSION  BOOK  COMPANY 

8HAKOHAI 


THE 

SPREAD  ^CHRISTIANITY 

IN  THE  MODERN 

WORLD 


By 

EDWARD  CALDWELL  MOORE 

Plummer  Professor  of  Christian  Morals  in  Harvard  University,  Chairman  of  the 

Board  of  Preachers  to  the  University,  and  President  of  the  American 

Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


io-irr 


Copyright  1919  By 
The  University  of  Chicago 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  July  191 9 
Second  Impression  November  191 9 


3  2>\ 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 


TO 

MY   COLLEAGUES 

WITH  WHOM   I   HAVE   SERVED   FOR   TWENTY   YEARS 

IN  THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE 

AMERICAN   BOARD 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

I  delivered  in  October  and  November,  1913,  in 
Mansfield  College,  Oxford,  the  Dale  Lectures  on  "The 
Expansion  of  Christendom  and  the  Naturalization  of 
Christianity  in  the  Orient  in  the  Nineteenth  Century." 
The  book  was  finished  in  191 5.  Its  publication  has  been 
delayed  because  of  the  war.  The  publisher  has  con- 
sented that  certain  general  considerations  which  are 
elaborated  in  that  book  shall  appear  in  brief  in  the 
introduction  to  this.  The  publishers  of  this  book  have 
acceded  to  the  same  request.  Apart  from  the  statement 
of  their  common  point  of  view  which  is  thus  provided 
for,  it  is  hoped  that  the  two  books  may  serve  as  com- 
plementary the  one  to  the  other.  This  book  attempts 
a  survey  of  the  history  of  missions  since  the  beginning 
of  the  modern  era.  It  aims  to  depict  the  missionary 
movement  against  the  background  of  general  history. 
It  seeks  to  present  an  outline  of  the  main  facts  so  far 
as  this  is  possible  within  so  small  a  compass.  The  other 
book  assumes  knowledge  of  the  facts,  both  those  which 
relate  to  the  spread  of  the  influence  of  European  civiliza- 
tion and  as  well  those  which  directly  concern  the  propa- 
ganda for  the  Christian  religion.  It  proposes  to  interpret 
this  history  and  to  discuss  the  philosophical  and  religious 
principles  involved. 

Edward  Caldwell  Moore 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
August  18,  1918 


IX 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
PART  I:    GENERAL  OUTLINE 

CHAPTER  PACE 

I.  The  Expansion  of  Christendom 5 

II.  The  Expansion  of  Modern  Europe:  Before  the 

Middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  ...  25 

III.  The  Expansion  of  Modern  Europe:  The  Period 

since  1757 37 

IV.  The  Expansion  of  Europe  in  America  and  Rus- 
sian Asia 61 

V.  The  Opening  of  Africa 71 

VI.  Missionary  Theory  and  Instrumentalities  .     .  79 

PART  II:    HISTORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT 

WITH  INDICATIONS  OF  THE  PRESENT 

SITUATION  IN  DIFFERENT  LANDS 

VII.  India 109 

VIII.  Japan 141 

IX.  China 177 

X.  The  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Moslem  World     .  211 

XL  Africa 251 

XII.  The  Americas  and  the  Islands 285 

Conclusion 318 

References 321 

Index 347 


XI 


PART  I 
GENERAL  OUTLINE 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM 

i.  Periodicity  in  the  Christian  movement 

2.  Relation  to  other  world-movements 

3.  The  first  period 

4.  Characteristics  of  Christianity  in  this  period 

5.  The  first  era  of  arrest 

6.  The  second  period 

7.  Characteristics  of  the  second  period 

8.  The  second  era  of  arrest 

9.  The  third  or  modern  period 

10.  Characteristics  of  the  period 

11.  The  Roman  church 

12.  The  Protestant  bodies 

13.  Changes  in  the  colonial  empires 

14.  An  era  of  world-evangelization 

15.  The  unity  of  history 

16.  Otherworldliness 

17.  Religious  propaganda  and  modern  history 

18.  The  human  factor 

19.  Missions  and  civilization 

20.  Humanitarianism 

21.  Co-operation  with  missions 

22.  Conclusion 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM 

i.  Periodicity  in  the  Christian  movement. — It  might 
be  supposed  that  the  obligation  of  Christians  for  the 
dissemination  of  their  faith  would  have  been  felt  by 
the  more  ardent  and  responsible  among  them  at  all  times 
and  in  every  place.  The  history  of  Christianity  shows 
that  this  has  been  by  no  means  the  case.  There  have 
been  periods  in  which  the  enthusiasm  for  the  carrying 
of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  to  those  who  had  it  not  was  a  con- 
spicuous trait  of  Christian  mind  and  life.  Such  eras 
of  missionary  activity  have  alternated,  however,  with 
others  in  which  even  the  most  zealous  piety  took  quite 
another  form.  There  have  been  ages  in  which  propa- 
ganda for  Christianity  among  new  peoples  practically 
ceased.  There  have  been  centuries  during  which  the 
boundaries  of  Christendom  were  not  enlarged.  At  times 
even  the  area  won  for  the  faith  by  earlier  efforts  was 
diminished. 

2.  Relation  to  other  world-movements. — These  eras  of 
stationariness  or  of  retrogression  are  not  always  to  be 
ascribed  to  a  diminution  of  the  vitality  of  the  Christian 
movement.  Ages  of  arrest  in  the  expansion  of  Chris- 
tendom have  sometimes  been  those  in  which  high 
vitality  was  absorbed  in  a  different  task.  The  energy 
of  the  movement  was  taken  up  in  the  consolidation  of 
gains  already  made.  Races  won  for  nominal  Christian- 
ity were  being  slowly  assimilated  to  its  spirit.  Chris- 
tianity was  undergoing  a  gradual  adjustment  to  the 


6  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

culture  and  civilization  of  these  races.  It  was  becom- 
ing naturalized  and  nationalized  among  them.  They 
were  being  Christianized  and  not  merely  evangelized. 
There  is  thus  something  altogether  normal  in  this 
alternation  which  has  marked  the  Christian  advance. 
There  is  a  close  relation  of  this  periodicity  in  the  expan- 
sion of  Christendom  to  other  world-movements.  The 
relation  of  missionary  endeavor  to  contemporary  con- 
ditions, political  and  commercial,  social  and  intellectual, 
is  one  which  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  movement 
has  not  always  been  sufficiently  emphasized.  It  is  one 
of  the  purposes  of  this  book  to  set  forth  that  relation. 

3.  The  first  period. — Broadly  speaking,  the  first  three 
centuries  of  the  Christian  movement  were  characterized 
by  a  great  enthusiasm  for  the  dissemination  of  the  faith. 
The  Christian  passion  was  evangelism,  the  telling  of  the 
message  of  redemption.  Before  the  end  of  this  period 
the  gospel  had  been  preached  everywhere  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  western  parts  of  the 
ancient  Asiatic  empires.  The  spread  of  the  influence 
and  teachings  of  Jesus  was,  however,  in  the  earliest 
period,  owing  in  but  small  part  to  men  whom  we  should 
call  missionaries.  It  was  the  achievement  of  men  of 
every  trade  and  occupation  and  of  every  order  in  society. 
Soldiers,  scholars,  travelers,  even  slaves,  carried  to  the 
farthest  limits  of  the  empire  that  secret  of  the  inner  life, 
that  new  attitude  toward  the  world,  which  in  their 
experience  constituted  salvation.  The  means  of  com- 
munication in  the  empire  facilitated  such  a  movement. 
Other  oriental  religions  had  spread  in  much  the  same 
way.  Something  like  a  uniformity  of  law,  language,  and 
civilization  obtained  at  that  time  within  the  limits  of 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  7 

the  empire  in  a  manner  which  has  had  no  parallel  in  the 
world  until  our  own  day. 

4.  Characteristics  of  Christianity  in  this  period. — The 
new  religious  movement,  great  as  was  its  ultimate  effect 
upon  the  classic  civilization,  was  of  itself  world-shy. 
It  was  not  primarily  a  new  doctrine  or  culture.  It  was 
hostile  to  many  aspects  of  the  current  civilization.  That 
civilization  was  profoundly  hostile  to  it.  It  did  not 
seek  to  establish  a  new  world-order.  It  sought  rather  to 
flee  the  world  and  to  prepare  its  votaries  for  another  and 
better  existence.  It  was  profoundly  convinced  of  the 
approaching  end  of  the  present  world-order.  It  believed 
in  the  sudden  and  miraculous  setting  up  of  a  new  wrorld- 
order.  It  was  a  gospel  of  the  inner  life.  It  was  a 
message  from  a  despised  corner  of  the  earth  to  a  world 
in  which  a  high  and  self-conscious  civilization  already 
prevailed.  Only  gradually  did  Christianity  become  con- 
scious of  itself  as  a  principle  for  the  transformation  of 
this  present  life  and  world.  Only  slowly  did  it  gather 
adherents  from  among  the  cultivated  and  powerful. 
Not  till  the  end  of  the  period  of  which  we  speak  did 
it  cease  to  be  the  faith  of  a  persecuted  sect  and  become 
one  of  the  religions  acknowledged  by  the  Roman  state. 

5.  The  first  era  of  arrest. — The  decline  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians,  the  natural 
development  of  the  church  as  a  great  institution,  caused 
the  church  in  some  sense  to  take  the  place  of  the  decaying 
empire.  The  demoralization  of  the  ancient  world,  the 
necessity  of  training  the  new  northern  peoples  who  had 
seized  upon  its  mastery,  set  the  church  which  was  now  an 
organized  and  self-conscious  hierarchy  a  new  task.  That 
task  was  no  longer  the  enlargement  of  the  boundaries  of 


8  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

nominal  Christendom  beyond  the  basin  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  was  that  of  the  Christianization  both  of 
the  peoples  of  the  ancient  civilization  and  of  the  new 
elements  which  were  found  in  such  strange  admixture  in 
all  the  lands  which  bordered  upon  the  inland  sea.  It 
was  the  problem  of  making  a  really  Christian  world  out 
of  those  areas  to  which  Christianity  in  name  at  least 
had  been  carried  before  the  decline  of  the  empire  had 
begun.  Meantime  the  church  had  changed  its  own  idea 
as  to  what  constituted  a  Christian  world.  It  was  not 
therefore  altogether  a  contradiction  that  the  missionary 
period  of  the  early  church  ended  abruptly  almost  at  the 
moment  when  the  church  attained  a  position  of  outward 
power  and  influence.  That  the  church  was  able  in  the 
interval  between  the  middle  of  the  fourth  and  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  centuries  to  Christianize  the  world  even 
in  the  measure  that  it  did  and  after  the  pattern  that  it 
chose  was  a  very  great  achievement.  That  it  was  itself 
in  startling  degree  secularized  and  assimilated  to  that 
world  was  an  inevitable  consequence.  It  was,  however, 
a  consequence  of  which  Christians  were  almost  wholly 
unaware. 

6.  The  second  period. — When,  toward  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century,  the  Christian  propaganda  was  resumed, 
it  had  for  its  aim  the  conversion  of  the  races  of  Northern 
and  Western  Europe,  which  had  lain  outside  of  the 
ancient  Roman  Empire  or  only  nominally  within  it.  The 
emissaries  of  the  gospel  went  out  from  three  centers. 
Southern  Russia  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula  were  evan- 
gelized from  Constantinople.  Germany  and  the  Low 
Countries,  northern  Gaul  and  Britain,  ultimately  also 
Denmark  and  Norway  and  Sweden  received  most  of 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  0 

their  emissaries  from  Rome.  A  portion  of  this  area  was, 
however,  the  field  of  devout  labor  on  the  part  also  of 
Celtic  monks,  who  represented  a  British  Christianity 
antedating  the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  province  of 
Britain.  The  conversion  of  the  Northern  European 
races  to  Christianity  brought  gains  to  Christendom 
which  in  some  measure  offset  the  tremendous  losses 
suffered  through  the  conquest  of  the  old  seats  of 
Christian  faith  and  civilization  in  Northern  Africa, 
in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  in  Persia,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates  by  the  forces  of  Islam.  It 
completed  that  occidentalizing  of  Christianity  which 
had  been  in  progress  ever  since  the  western  journeys 
of  St.  Paul. 

7.  Characteristics  of  the  second  period. — In  striking 
contrast  with  the  method  of  the  earlier  era  the  men 
engaged  in  this  grand  mission  to  the  Northern  European 
races  were  almost  invariably  ecclesiastics.  They  were 
the  agents  of  a  highly  organized  institution  of  religion. 
They  were  priests,  indeed  in  large  part  they  were  monks. 
They  represented  an  ascetic  view  of  life,  in  the  West  at 
least  a  celibate  practice,  a  theory  of  the  relation  of  reli- 
gion to  the  world  which  had  come  to  be  recognized  as  the 
superior  form  of  piety  and  the  more  spiritual  interpreta- 
tion of  Christianity.  This  theory  had  certainly  not  been 
put  forth  by  Jesus  nor  by  the  earliest  church.  Neverthe- 
less, such  were  the  needs  of  the  peoples  among  whom 
these  monks  and  missionaries  went  that,  in  spite  of  their 
view  of  the  relation  of  religion  to  the  world,  they  became 
practically  everywhere  teachers  of  the  elements  of 
culture,  exponents  in  these  new  fields  of  an  old  and 
high    civilization.     They   became    the   founders    of    a 


to  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

world-order.  In  large  part  they  determined  the  political 
and  economic,  the  intellectual  and  social  and  moral  char- 
acteristics which  are  familiar  to  us  as  those  of  Europe 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  They  preserved  and  transmitted 
a  learning  which  was  fundamentally  Hellenic.  They 
perpetuated  the  power  and  order  which  mankind  owed 
to  the  Roman  genius  for  organization.  They  gave  to 
much  of  the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  ecclesiastical 
cast  which  it  never  lost  until  the  Renaissance. 

8.  The  second  era  of  arrest. — The  period  of  the  con- 
version of  Northern  Europe  covered  about  four  centuries. 
Then  just  as  before  there  followed  an  interval  of  approxi- 
mately four  hundred  years  when  practically  no  effort 
was  made  to  carry  the  gospel  to  regions  beyond.  The 
Russian  and  Balkan  area  took  on  a  religious  station- 
ariness  from  which  it  has  not  yet  emerged.  Mediaeval 
Europe,  so  religious  and  Christian  in  its  own  way,  possess- 
ing a  civilization  so  much  more  wonderful  than  we  are 
apt  to  acknowledge,  had  lost  almost  all  remembrance 
of  a  non-European  world  of  which  the  classic  civilization 
had  been  so  well  aware.  The  East,  which  it  vividly 
realized,  was  only  the  margin  of  Islam,  the  region  in 
which  it  had  conducted  the  wars  of  the  Crusades.  Those 
wars  themselves  had  built  a  barrier  between  the  West 
and  the  Near  East  which  has  begun  to  crumble  only  in 
modern  times.  The  Far  East,  India,  China,  Japan,  and 
even  Africa  were  almost  a  realm  of  legend.  They  were 
nearly  as  much  unknown  as  if  they  had  been  on  another 
planet.  Little  islands  of  Greek  and  Eastern  Christianity 
still  stood  out  above  the  rising  tide  of  Mohammedanism. 
Constantinople  remained  until  1453  the  last  bulwark 
against   Islam.     Yet,   in   the   Fourth   Crusade,  Venice 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  it 

betrayed  Constantinople  as  if  she  had  been  her  chief 
foe.  Neither  from  Constantinople  nor  from  the  ancient 
churches  of  Syria  or  Asia  Minor  went  out  any  effort 
toward  regaining  the  East  which  had  once  been  Chris- 
tian. The  Crusades,  the  European  effort  within  this 
area,  were  the  very  opposite  of  a  missionary  movement. 
9.  The  third  or  modern  period. — The  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  witnessed  a  great  revival  of  enthusiasm 
in  the  Roman  church  for  the  spread  of  the  faith  among 
non-Christian  peoples.  Jesuit  and  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries followed  the  discoverers  and  explorers,  the 
conquerors  and  traders  who  in  Portuguese,  Spanish, 
and  French  ships  traversed  every  sea  and  brought  to 
Europe  the  knowledge  of  the  lands  of  two  hemispheres. 
Of  this  movement  navigators  and  traders  had  been  the 
precursors  since  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Their  aims  had  been  those  of  conquest  and  commerce. 
These  adventurers  had  claimed  continents  for  one  and 
another  of  the  crowns  of  Europe.  They  had  opened 
the  way  for  colonial  empires  which  were  presently  to 
enrich  many  European  states.  The  world-movement 
which  was  thus  ushered  in  ultimately  brought  among 
other  things  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel  to  every  people 
on  the  earth.  It  was,  however,  primarily  a  secular 
movement.  It  sought  to  add  to  the  domain  and  to  the 
wealth  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  It  became  a  phase 
of  the  rivalry  of  European  states  among  themselves. 
The  exploitation  alike  of  the  ancient  civilized  peoples 
of  the  Far  East  and  of  the  half-civilized  or  uncivilized 
aborigines  of  the  West  was  but  an  instrumentality  of 
the  aggrandizement  of  the  European  peoples.  These 
last  had  for  various  reasons  emerged  from  the  Middle 


12  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Ages  relatively  more  powerful  and  aggressive  than  all 
other  peoples  of  the  earth. 

10.  Characteristics  of  the  period.— -The  conquerors  and 
traders  of  whom  we  speak  had  but  little  religious  impulse, 
at  all  events  of  the  sort  which  we  should  now  recognize 
by  that  name.  They  sought,  indeed,  to  conquer  in  the 
name  of  Christianity.  The  sovereigns  whom  they 
represented  made  much  of  these  conquests  for  the  cause 
of  Christ.  The  adventurers  had  primarily  no  impulse 
to  transform  the  ancient  civilizations  of  India  or  China 
or  Japan  in  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  In  fact,  the 
provincialism  of  these  representatives  of  Christendom 
was  such  that  they  showed  but  slight  comprehension 
of  the  fact  that  India  or  China  had  any  civilization,  just 
as  they  would  certainly  have  assumed  that  these  nations 
had  no  true  religion.  They  had  little  zeal  to  bestow 
what  have  since  been  called  the  benefits  of  Christian 
civilization  upon  the  nations  of  the  Orient.  Indeed, 
they  were  so  intent  upon  conquests  and  profits  that  they 
showed  mainly  the  dark  side  of  that  civilization. 

ii.  The  Roman  church. — The  priests  who  accom- 
panied the  adventurers  had  also  something  of  the 
mediaeval  conquerors'  instinct.  They  planned  com- 
pletely to  displace  the  indigenous  faiths.  They  were 
anxious  to  add  multitudes  to  the  numbers  of  the  adher- 
ents of  their  own  church.  They  were  eager  to  offset 
the  losses  which  at  that  time  the  Protestant  Reformation 
was  inflicting  upon  their  church  in  Europe.  Yet  they 
also  left  the  question  of  the  relation  of  the  faith  which 
they  ardently  preached  to  the  civilization  and  culture 
of  the  peoples  among  whom  they  preached  it  very  much 
on  one  side.     They  entered  into  easy  accommodations 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  13 

with  those  civilizations.  It  was  long  before  they  came 
to  regard  themselves  as  the  emissaries  of  a  spirit  which 
was  to  be,  abroad  as  well  as  at  home,  the  secret  of  the 
transformation  of  every  relation  of  man's  life  on  earth. 
Without  doubt  this  was  because,  in  the  mission  fields 
as  in  the  home  lands,  they  regarded  religion  as  having 
mainly  to  do  with  another  world  and  the  future  life. 
They  apprehended  Christianity  as  a  matter  of  creeds 
and  rites  rather  than  of  spirit  and  conduct. 

12.  The  Protestant  bodies. — This  remark  would  be 
measurably  true  of  the  earliest  stages  of  the  Protestant 
missionary  movement  when  at  last  that  movement 
began.  The  Reformation  had  been  inaugurated  some 
decades  before  the  departure  of  Francis  Xavier  for  India. 
Yet  the  Protestant  churches  sent  out  practically  no 
missionaries  until  after  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Protestant  nations,  the  Dutch,  the  Danes, 
and  the  English,  had  succeeded  the  Latin  races  in  the 
movement  of  conquest  and  trade  both  in  the  East  and 
in  the  West.  The  Protestant  peoples,  however,  under- 
took no  world-evangelization  on  a  great  scale  until  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Something  in  their  mode 
of  apprehension  of  the  gospel  in  the  churches  of  the 
home  lands  made  them  also,  at  the  first  and  for  a  long 
time,  feel  themselves  to  be  the  emissaries  almost  exclu- 
sively of  a  doctrine  concerning  the  inner  life  and  a 
future  state.  The  full  force  of  their  gospel  as  a  secret 
of  the  transformation  of  this  world  also  has  hardly 
begun  to  be  felt  until  our  own  day. 

13.  Changes  in  the  colonial  empires. — Meantime  the 
empires  of  conquest  and  trade  built  up  by  the  various 
European  powers  had  waxed  and  waned.     Those  of  the 


14  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Latin  races,  except  that  of  France,  had  practically 
vanished.  Those  of  the  Dutch  and  Danes  had  almost 
disappeared.  That  of  the  Russians  is  an  episode  of 
very  modern  times,  at  all  events  in  its  relation  to  Western 
civilization.  The  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
these  empires  was  marked  at  times  by  cruelties  and 
unscrupulousness  toward  weaker  races  and  by  fierce 
rivalry  among  the  colonizing  powers.  These  facts 
brought  reproach  upon  Christendom.  Colonial  empires 
have  at  times  conferred  great  benefits  upon  subject 
peoples.  They  have  also  inflicted  many  and  deep 
injuries.  It  is  only  within  the  last  century  and  a  quarter 
that  any  of  these  empires  have  understood  it  to  be  a  part 
of  the  purpose  of  their  existence  to  confer  benefits  upon 
subject  peoples.  The  way  has  been  opened  for  the 
gospel  by  secular  agencies.  Yet  also  the  cause  of  the 
real  gospel  has  been  at  times  sorely  compromised  by 
association  with  these  agencies. 

14.  An  era  of  world-evangelization. — The  period  of 
this  third  and  greatest  expansion  of  Christendom  has 
thus  again  been  a  little  less  than  four  hundred  years 
The  area  of  expansion  is  not  now  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  not  the  northern  and  western 
part  of  the  little  continent  of  Europe.  In  this  epoch 
the  area  has  been  literally  the  whole  of  the  habitable 
earth.  The  effort  for  the  spread  of  Christianity  has 
been,  as  we  have  said,  but  an  episode  in  a  far  larger 
world-movement,  a  movement  which  has  resulted  in 
bringing  the  whole  earth  under  the  influence  of  Europe. 
Even  so,  and  despite  the  fact  that  the  period  of  intense 
effort  for  the  evangelization  of  the  world  has  been  barely 
a  century  and  a  half,  the  task  of  mere  evangelization 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  15 

may  be  said  to  be  approaching  completion.  In  the 
sense  merely  of  the  proclaiming  of  the  gospel  in  all  lands 
the  work  is  entering  upon  its  later  stages.  An  arrest 
of  this  mere  evangelizing  process  parallel  to  that  which 
we  have  already  twice  observed  in  Christian  history 
seems  near.  There  will  soon  be  comparatively  few  men 
anywhere  who  have  not  had  a  chance  of  listening  to  the 
word  of  the  grace  of  God  as  revealed  in  Jesus  Christ. 
How  much  that  avails  is  another  question.  How  far 
we  still  are  from  the  real  Christianizing  of  the  world  is 
brought  home  to  us  with  terrific  force  in  these  days  of 
war.  It  sometimes  seems  as  if  we  were  so  far  from 
that  goal  within  Christendom  itself  that  we  have  little 
to  say  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Yet  even  that  dis- 
semination of  the  word  of  Christianity  of  which  we 
spoke  and  the  beginning  made  of  the  transformation  of 
men  by  its  spirit  have  put  practically  all  the  nations  of 
mankind  in  a  position  to  judge  between  Christianity 
and  Christendom.  How  vast  is  the  task  of  this  natural- 
ization and  nationalization  of  Christianity  among  all 
the  races  of  the  earth,  including  our  own,  must  be 
obvious  to  anyone  who  thinks. 

15.  The  unity  of  history. — These  brief  paragraphs 
serve  to  show  that  it  is  impossible  adequately  to  deal 
with  the  history  of  the  spread  of  Christian  ideals  and 
influence  without  taking  cognizance  of  the  complex 
relations  of  the  religious  movement  to*  culture  and 
civilization  in  general.  It  is  not  possible  to  depict  the 
various  stages  in  the  advance  of  Christianity  without 
reckoning  with  the  world -situations  which  from  time 
to  time  have  called  forth  these  zealous  endeavors.  The 
direction  and  characteristics  of  these  successive  efforts 


1 6  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

have  been  determined  by  conditions  over  which  the 
ardent  propagandists  had  but  little  control.  Decisive 
factors  in  the  history  of  missions  have  often  been  those 
of  which,  with  all  their  sense  of  a  divine  obligation  and 
of  the  divine  aid,  the  missionaries  were  not  the  creators — 
rather  they  in  common  with  all  the  men  of  their  time 
were  created  by  these  conditions.  The  life  of  the  race, 
like  the  garment  of  Jesus,  to  which  in  a  profound  sense 
it  might  be  compared,  has  always  been  woven  all  of  one 
piece.  The  incarnation  itself  was  a  true  entering  of 
the  divine  into  human  life  with  all  the  temporal  and 
local,  the  passing  and  partial,  the  exalted  and  pathetic 
elements  which  are  inseparable  from  any  historic  mani- 
festation. The  gradual  embodiment  of  the  spirit  of 
Jesus  in  the  life  of  mankind  in  so  far  as  it  has  yet  been 
accomplished  has  known  no  other  conditions. 

1 6.  Otlierworldliness. — It  has  pleased  the  votaries  of 
Christianity  at  times  to  seek  to  make  another  world, 
the  world  of  the  religious,  within  and  in  large  part 
isolated  from  the  world  of  ordinary  men.  So  we  might 
describe  the  effort  of  eremites  and  monks  in  every 
age.  It  has  pleased  enthusiasts  of  other  eras  not  to 
make  another  world  in  this,  but  to  seek  to  make  for 
another  world.  So  we  might  describe  the  idea  of  the 
enthusiastic  martyrs  in  the  first  period,  of  many  mystics 
and  ascetics  in  all  periods,  and,  with  differences,  the 
most  otherworldly  of  the  Protestant  forefathers.  The 
prevailing  mood  of  our  time  is  that  which  esteems  that 
the  problem  is  neither  to  make  for  another  world  nor 
yet  to  make  another  world  in  this,  but  through  men  who 
are  being  saved  to  make  this  another  world.  The  point 
to  be  noted  is  that  the  circumstances  which  determined 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  17 

the  relative  success  or  failure  of  these  various  endeavors 
were  circumstances  given  in  the  life  of  their  respective 
times.  Not  only  so,  but  even  the  causes  which  led  the 
representatives  of  the  same  faith  at  different  times  to 
set  before  themselves  such  divergent  aims  have  always 
been  given  in  the  common  inheritance  of  mankind  from 
its  past,  in  the  dangers  and  duties  of  the  present,  and 
in  the  specific  ideals  which  have  possessed  the  minds  of 
successive  generations  as  to  the  future. 

17.  Religious  propaganda  and  modern  history. — The 
Christian  movement  is  a  part  of  the  world-movement. 
It  is  part  of  a  propaganda  for  European  ideas  which  at 
the  present  moment  is  extremely  zealous  for  many  ideas 
besides  those  of  the  Christian  faith.  It  may  at  times 
serve  the  purpose  of  scientific  investigation  to  isolate 
one  organ  of  the  body  under  the  microscope  or  to  devote 
volumes  to  the  description  of  one  function  in  the  body's 
life.  Another  purpose  is  meantime  defeated  if  it  be 
forgotten  that  the  function  under  discussion  is  never 
operative  save  in  connection  with  other  functions.  It 
pleased  some  of  the  church  fathers  to  think  of  Christ's 
church  as  an  ark  of  safety  wherein  a  few  souls  were  to 
be  saved.  Under  a  favorite  image  converts  of  the  early 
Protestant  missionaries  have  been  described  as  brands 
plucked  from  the  burning.  For  reasons  which  are  not 
far  to  seek  these  images  of  the  nature  and  effect  of  reli- 
gion do  not  now  appeal  to  the  majority.  There  is  every 
reason  why  there  should  be  a  specific  literature  of  mis- 
sions. It  is  possible,  however,  that  to  many  minds  an 
understanding  of  the  cause  of  missions  may  be  rendered 
easier  by  the  effort  to  set  forth  this  bit  of  history  as 
but  a  part  of  the  real  history  of  the  world.     There  is 


18  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

value  in  the  endeavor  to  show  that  the  religious  move- 
ment has  had  and  now  has  its  place  within  the  frame- 
work of  a  far  larger  world-movement. 

1 8.  The  human  factor. — In  his  vision  Peter's  waver- 
ing purpose  to  carry  the  gospel  to  those  who  as  yet  had 
it  not  was  reinforced  by  an  image  of  living  creatures  let 
down  from  heaven  in  a  sheet.  In  the  Apocalypse  the 
city  of  God  is  represented  as  coming  down  out  of  heaven. 
In  reality  Peter's  missionary  endeavors,  in  so  far  as  we 
know  anything  about  them,  were  very  much  like  those 
of  other  well-wishers  of  mankind  who  have  trodden,  with 
sore  and  yet  sure  feet,  the  common  earth.  We  may  be 
as  much  assured  as  were  men  of  old  that  the  secret  of 
the  kingdom  comes  down  from  God,  who  is  spirit,  into 
the  souls  of  men,  who  are  spirit  too.  The  Christian 
nation  does  not  thus  come  down.  It  grows  up.  It  is 
built  and  established  by  the  labors  of  men  like  ourselves 
and  under  conditions  which  in  a  general  way  have  pre- 
vailed and  always  will  prevail  in  the  building  of  cities 
and  kingdoms.  On  this  basis  the  missionary  movement, 
despite  the  defects  which  it  shares  with  all  other  human 
movements,  becomes  one  of  the  most  imposing  in  the 
history  of  our  race.  On  this  basis  its  history  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  impressive  chapters  in  the  history  of 
mankind. 

19.  Missions  and  civilization. — That  which  has  been 
said  applies  with  peculiar  force  to  the  modern  era  of 
missions.  In  the  second  period,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
church  took  the  initiative  in  a  movement  which  resulted 
in  the  carrying  of  large  elements  of  the  civilization  of 
the  ancient  world  to  all  the  nations  of  mediaeval  Europe. 
The  movement  was  primarily  a  religious  movement,  only 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  19 

secondarily  an  ameliorating  and  educating  movement, 
although  it  is  true  that  from  the  first  its  emissaries 
recognized  themselves  as  bearers  of  a  civilization  as  well 
as  of  the  gospel.  In  the  third  period,  that  with  which 
we  are  to  deal,  the  case  is  reversed.  The  religious 
movement  has  been  only  a  part,  in  some  respects  a 
belated  part,  of  a  movement  for  an  expansion  of  Europe 
into  all  the  earth  which  had  far  different  motives.  That 
movement  aimed  primarily  at  conquest,  although  that 
conquest  was  to  be  also  in  the  name  of  the  church. 
Later,  commerce  became  the  great  ideal.  In  its  com- 
mercial stage  the  movement  was  often  indifferent  or 
even  frankly  hostile  to  the  religious  propaganda.  Con- 
versely, missions  were  often  suspicious  of  humanitarian 
efforts  when  these  began  to  be  made,  hostile  to  mere 
social  and  reforming  aims,  alienated  from  those  who 
sought  simply  the  general  uplifting  of  mankind. 

20.  Humanitarianism. — A  humane  and  ameliorating 
impulse,  a  desire  to  confer  the  benefits  of  civilization  as 
Europeans  understood  these  benefits,  began  to  make 
itself  felt  in  the  conduct  of  Western  nations  toward 
the  East  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
coincided  with  that  rise  of  enthusiasm  for  humanity 
which  swept  over  Europe  as  the  period  of  rationalism 
declined.  It  had  relation  to  romanticism.  It  reflected 
itself  in  the  treatment  of  prisoners  and  in  the  attitude 
toward  slavery.  It  altered  the  policy  of  Western 
governments  toward  Eastern  peoples  whom  they  had 
subjected  to  themselves.  Much  of  this  reforming 
earnestness  had  its  origin  in  the  quickened  conscience 
of  Europe.  It  bore  undeniable  relation  to  the  great 
liberal   and   idealistic   movement   of   the   time.     It   is 


20  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

certain  that  one  of  the  sources  of  the  modern  missionary 
movement  was  in  this  new  feeling  for  humanity  as  a 
whole.  Yet  the  advocates  of  many  of  these  generous 
efforts  on  behalf  of  humanity  accused  missionaries  of 
having  neglected  the  whole  problem  of  the  life  of  man 
upon  earth  in  their  zeal  to  save  his  soul  in  heaven. 

21.  Co-operation  with  missions. — These  two  move- 
ments, which  have  really  worked  together  in  striking 
fashion  to  produce  certain  results  which  we  see  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  have  often  worked 
together  most  unwillingly.  They  have  served  a  com- 
mon end,  although  they  have  often  been  jealous  of  one 
another  while  serving  it.  Only  within  the  last  two 
generations  have  missions  thrown  themselves  without 
reserve  into  civilizing  and  ameliorating  endeavor,  into 
efforts  of  a  social  and  economic  and  intellectual  sort 
on  behalf  of  those  whom  for  three  or  four  generations 
they  have  been  seeking  to  evangelize.  They  have 
realized  that  they  must  touch  the  outward  life  as  well. 
Only  within  the  last  two  generations,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  governments  and  commercial  companies  and 
enthusiasts  for  certain  specific  reforms  rid  themselves 
of  their  prejudice,  often  gravely  unjust,  against  those 
who  sought  to  reach  the  universal  human  problem 
primarily  from  the  side  of  the  inner  life.  A  similar 
rapprochement  of  the  two  factors  of  religion  and  of  the 
rational  and  humane  movement  in  civilization,  the  move- 
ment of  civil,  social,  and  economic  progress,  has  been  one 
of  the  outstanding  traits  of  the  life  of  the  European 
nations  and  of  America  within  the  same  generations. 

22.  Conclusion. — It  is  clear  therefore  that  we  have 
to  try  to  depict  the  modern  missionary  movement  against 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTENDOM  21 

the  background  of  the  history  of  the  modern  world  in 
general.  We  have  to  speak  of  many  things  which  are 
supposed  to  lie  outside  of  the  range  of  the  history  of 
missions.  We  shall  be  compelled  to  deal  with  these 
things  only  in  barest  outline.  Indeed,  the  history  of 
the  missionary  movement  itself  which  we  are  able  to 
offer  can  be  nothing  but  the  barest  outline.  A  manual 
like  this  can  hardly  attempt  to  do  more  than  to  sketch 
roughly  that  which  has  been  accomplished  at  vast  cost 
and  by  means  of  heroic  consecration.  It  will  endeavor 
to  show,  in  some  measure  at  least,  the  part  which  mis- 
sions have  played  in  making  the  modern  world  what  it 
is.  It  will  seek  as  well  to  show  the  part  which  the 
modern  world  with  all  of  its  manifold  elements  and 
complex  tendencies  has  had  in  making  modern  missions 
what  these  have  been  and  what  they  now  are. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE 

BEFORE  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


CHAPTER  n 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE:  BEFORE  THE 
MIDDLE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

2$.  The  voyages  of  discovery 

24.  Participation  of  Spain  and  Portugal 

25.  Participation  of  England,  Holland,  and  France 

26.  The  motive  of  conquest 

27.  The  motive  of  trade 

28.  English  and  Dutch  trade 

29.  French  exploration 

30.  The  age  of  rationalism 

31.  The  Mediterranean  and  the  Moslem  invasions  of  Europe 

32.  French  settlements  by  religious  refugees 

33.  English  and  Scotch  who  sought  religious  liberty 

34.  Voyages  of  discovery  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 

35.  Conclusion 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE:  BEFORE  THE 
MIDDLE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

23.  The  voyages  of  discovery. — The  first  impact  of 
the  civilization  of  Europe  upon  the  ancient  civilizations 
of  the  Far  East,  those  of  India,  of  Japan,  and  China,  as 
also  upon  the  half-civilized  and  uncivilized  races  of 
North  and  South  America,  came  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  1492  a  Genoese,  Christopher  Columbus,  in 
a  Spanish  ship  and  bearing  a  letter  to  the  Khan  of 
Tartary,  set  out  from  Palos  seeking  India  and  discovered 
America.  He  landed  on  San  Salvador.  In  a  later 
voyage  he  reached  Trinidad  and  other  islands  on  the 
coast  of  South  America.  In  1497  another  Italian,  John 
Cabot,  possibly  a  Genoese  but  long  resident  in  Venice, 
sailing  from  Bristol,  England,  under  the  patronage  of 
Henry  VII  reached  Nova  Scotia.  In  a  later  voyage  he 
touched  Labrador  and  possibly  Newfoundland.  In 
1496  Vasco  da  Gama,  sailing  from  Lisbon  under  the 
mandate  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  cruised  along  the  southwestern  and  south- 
eastern coasts  of  India  and  landed  at  Calicut,  not  far 
from  Madras.  In  1500  Cabral,  a  Portuguese  pupil  of 
da  Gama,  made  the  first  voyage  to  Brazil.  All  these 
adventurers  were  seeking  "the  East,"  a  region  of  fabled 
wealth  for  the  whole  of  which  they  used  the  vague  name 
"India"  or  "The  Indies."  The  epoch-making  voyages 
which  we  have  named  all  took  place  within  one  decade. 
That  fact  shows  that  several  nations  at  the  end  of  the 

25 


26  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

age  of  the  Renaissance  were  ready  to  transcend  the  con- 
fines of  Christendom,  waiting  to  conquer  territory  and 
gain  wealth  for  peoples  quickened  with  thoughts  and 
ambitions  such  as  the  Middle  Ages  had  never  known. 

24.  Participation  of  Spain  and  Portugal. — A  decree 
of  the  Borgia  pope,  Alexander  VI,  sought  to  adjust  the 
rivalries  of  Spain  and  Portugal  by  assigning  all  lands 
discovered  or  to  be  discovered  west  of  a  parallel  of 
longitude  running  a  hundred  miles  west  of  the  Azores  to 
the  Spaniards  and  those  east  of  that  parallel  to  the  Portu- 
guese. His  decree  is  in  more  ways  than  one  a  curiosity. 
Nevertheless,  it  had  significant  effect  for  the  develop- 
ment both  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  of  European 
empires  in  the  Far  East.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  sea  power  and  colonial  empires  of  both 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  began  to  decline.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  Armada  in  1588  the  English  were  able  to 
gain  freedom  for  their  commerce  both  in  the  West  and 
in  the  East,  a  commerce  the  beginnings  of  which  had 
been  made  almost  a  century  before. 

25.  Participation  of  England,  Holland,  and  France. — 
By  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Dutch 
were  rivals  with  the  English  for  trade  on  all  seas  and 
colonial  possessions  on  the  margin  of  every  continent.  In 
1605  the  French  under  Champlain  had  established  Quebec 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  what  was  to  be  called  "New 
France."  French  explorers  and  adventurers,  fur  traders, 
and  priests  ascended  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  headwaters  of 
the  Mississippi.  They  descended  this  river  to  New 
Orleans.  They  named  a  region  which  had  practically 
on  boundaries,  save  perhaps  the  Appalachians  on  its 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  27 

eastern  side,  "Louisiana."  Spaniards  from  Florida 
and  from  regions  which  are  now  Texas  and  Mexico  had 
already  pushed  westward  in  similar  fashion  to  the  Pacific 
Coast.  Later  they  moved  northward  nearly  as  far  as 
the  present  northern  boundary  of  California.  Portu- 
guese, in  spite  of  the  pope's  edict,  had  entered  Brazil 
and  made  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  and  the  great  plains 
to  the  south  of  it  part  of  a  Portuguese  world-empire; 
likewise  the  Spaniards  had  gone  eastward  to  the  Philip- 
pines. Even  smaller  European  states,  like  Denmark,  had 
established  centers  of  trade  on  Iceland  and  Greenland 
and  the  West  Indies  and  on  both  coasts  of  India  and 
the  Malay  Peninsula. 

26.  The  motive  of  conquest. — Everywhere  in  this 
movement  we  observe  two  motives,  at  times  distinct 
the  one  from  the  other  and  at  times  in  more  or  less  effec- 
tive combination.  There  was  the  motive  of  conquest. 
Of  this  phase  of  the  movement  the  Spanish  conquests 
in  America  may  be  taken  as  typical.  In  them  the  im- 
pulse to  seize  land,  to  subject  peoples,  to  appropriate 
the  movable  wealth  of  these  peoples,  especially  their 
gold  and  silver,  was  the  dominant  trait.  These  adven- 
turers sought  to  wrest  sovereignty  from  the  infidels  and 
to  exploit  the  fabled  wealth  of  peoples  inferior  to  them- 
selves in  arms.  The  expeditions  were  made  up  almost 
wholly  of  soldiers  and  sailors  and  a  few  priests.  There 
were  few  traders.  Men  interested  in  agriculture  rarely 
came  with  them,  or  even  men  interested  in  mining, 
save  merely  to  superintend  the  labors  of  the  unfortu- 
nate aborigines  and  the  black  slaves  soon  introduced. 
They  brought  few  women.  Only  later  did  they  seek 
permanent   settlements.     There  was  never  a   Spanish 


28  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

civilization  in  America  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the 
Spain  of  the  sixteenth  century  which  the  civilization  of 
practically  the  whole  United  States  bears  to  that  of  the 
England  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

27.  The  motive  of  trade. — The  Portuguese,  although 
they  also  exemplified  at  times  the  zeal  of  conquest,  were 
more  distinctively  traders.  They  developed  commerce 
in  the  seaports  of  the  East  to  which  they  were  permitted 
access.  Conditions  in  India  and  still  more  in  Japan 
would,  indeed,  never  have  permitted  a  small  body  of 
aggressive  Europeans  to  launch  upon  such  vast  terri- 
torial conquests  as  followed  upon  the  invasions  of  the 
Spaniards  and  the  French  in  North  America  or  of  the 
Portuguese  in  South  America.  Yet  even  where,  as 
in  East  Africa,  it  was  not  difficult  to  conquer  territory 
the  Portuguese  showed  the  intention  of  developing  the 
territory  conquered,  of  making  it  the  consumer  of  Portu- 
guese goods  and  sending  African  products  to  Portuguese 
markets.  Goa  and  the  Portuguese  settlements  on  the 
Coromandel  Coast  were  essentially  commercial  settle- 
ments. The  Portuguese  were  ready  to  defend  themselves 
and  sometimes  even  to  force  trade.  They  were  not  dis- 
posed to  spoil  the  willingness  of  the  natives  to  trade  by  put- 
ting themselves  forward  too  aggressively  as  conquerors. 

28.  English  and  Dutch  trade. — The  remark  made  as  to 
the  Portuguese  would  apply  to  the  Dutch  when  they 
took  their  place  in  this  world-movement.  They  were 
before  all  things  a  commercial  people.  They  wished  to 
trade  with  all  nations  and  thus  to  gain  outlet  for  the 
energies  of  their  own  dense  population,  confined  to  a 
small  territory,  part  of  which  had  been  rescued  from  the 
sea.    There  was  cheerful  fighting  on  the  part  of  the 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  29 

Dutch  with  the  various  Eastern  and  Western  peoples 
who  objected  to  their  trade  and  also  with  Europeans 
who  were  their  rivals  in  that  trade.  Trade  was,  however, 
the  great  object.  Even  of  the  English  these  remarks 
would  be  true  in  general  down  to  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Then  the  breath  of  a  new  time  began 
to  make  itself  felt  in  British  world-politics. 

29.  French  exploration. — The  French  voyages  and 
journeys  of  adventure  had  had  a  character  of  their  own. 
Much  valor  had  been  shown,  but  the  French  never 
conquered  territory  with  the  ferocity  with  which  the 
Spaniards  set  themselves  that  task.  They  aspired, 
or  at  least  Colbert,  Louis  XIV's  greatest  minister, 
aspired,  to  build  up  French  commerce  and  to  develop  a 
new  France  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea.  The  fur  trade 
was  of  vast  proportions.  The  centralization  of  power, 
however,  in  the  Bourbon  monarchy,  the  bureaucracy 
which  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  had  done  their  utmost  to 
develop,  proved  fatal  to  that  freedom  and  initiative 
which  all  successful  overseas  empires  have  shown.  To 
this  difference  in  national  organization  and,  as  things 
then  were,  in  race  temperament  as  well,  one  may  largely 
attribute  the  success  of  the  English  commercial  empire 
both  in  America  and  again  in  India.  This  latter  also 
steadily  advanced  while  the  French  faded  away. 

30.  The  age  of  rationalism. — A  great  change  came 
over  the  mind  of  the  European  world  after  the  end  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany  and  of  the  Civil 
War  in  England.  Motives  imperial  and  ecclesiastical 
of  the  sort  which  had  ruled  in  the  Middle  Ages  took 
second  place  in  men's  minds.  Even  the  spirit  of  nation- 
alism which  had  been  so  marked  in  the  fourteenth 


30  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

century  now  changed  its  form.  New  motives,  all 
connected,  it  would  seem,  with  the  rise  of  rationalism, 
took  possession  of  peoples  and  their  policies.  Trade 
was  to  be  preferred  to  conquest.  Peace  might  be  more 
advantageous  than  war.  There  was  a  new  sense  of  the 
rights  of  all  nations  to  the  fruits  of  the  struggle  of  the 
human  race.  There  grew  up  in  Europe  an  apprehension 
of  international  law.  There  was  a  dawning  sense  on 
the  part  of  Europeans  that  there  might  be  value  in 
other  civilizations  than  their  own  and  in  other  religions 
than  those  with  which  they  were  familiar.  These 
ideas  never  permeated  Spain  or  Portugal  in  any  degree. 
They  permeated  in  high  degree  Holland,  Denmark,  and 
England.  Despite  the  great  intellectual  achievements 
of  France  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV,  despite  the  breadth 
and  fineness  of  the  French  spirit,  these  ideas  did  not 
widely  prevail  in  the  France  of  the  grand  monarque. 
Before  they  came  to  prevail  France  had  temporarily 
lost  her  place  in  the  world-movement  of  European 
expansion  which  we  are  seeking  to  describe.  Germany 
had  had  no  place  in  that  movement,  for  the  simplest  of 
all  reasons — there  was  no  Germany.  There  were  only 
a  few  score  of  petty  and  jealous  German  potentates. 
Italy  had  no  place  in  this  movement.  There  was  no 
Italy.  There  were  only  a  few  score  Italian  cities  and 
principalities. 

31.  The  Mediterranean  and  the  Moslem  invasions  of 
Europe. — Venice  had  once  been  the  only  commercial 
state  in  Europe  on  a  grand  scale.  The  issue  of  the 
Crusades  had,  however,  put  an  end  to  the  power  and 
gradually  destroyed  the  commerce  of  Europe  in  the 
Levant  and  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa.    The  disco v- 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  31 

ery  of  America  and  of  the  Far  East  had  turned  the 
channels  of  trade  and  given  other  direction  to  the  spirit  of 
adventure.  These  events,  with  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
had  prepared  the  way  for  a  colossal  and  awe-inspiring 
impact  of  the  Mohammedan  civilization  of  the  Near 
East  upon  Europe  itself,  an  attack  which  reached  its  limit 
so  late  as  the  Ottoman  siege  of  Vienna  in  1683.  In  the 
two  centuries  during  which  European  Christendom  had 
been  pressing  upon  the  Far  East  and  upon  America  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  had  made  victorious  invasion, 
not  alone  of  Central  and  Southern  Russia,  but  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  and  of  considerable  portions  of  Hun- 
gary and  Austria.  They  had  practically  driven  the  ships 
of  Christendom  from  the  Mediterranean.  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  who  sent  Columbus  to  America,  drove  the  last 
Moors  from  Spain.  It  was  twenty  years  after  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  that  Ivan  III  won  final  victory  for 
the  Russians  over  the  Tatars,  who  were  by  that  time 
largely  of  the  Moslem  faith.  In  1459  Mohammed  II 
had  put  an  end  to  the  old  Serbian  Empire  and  made 
of  Serbia  a  pashalic  under  the  Porte,  a  state  of  things 
which  continued  until  181 7.  It  was  only  in  1829  that 
Greece  won  her  independence  from  the  Turk.  It  was 
in  1878  that  Bulgaria  could  first  call  itself  an  indepen- 
dent state.  The  fate  of  the  Balkans  was  again  one  of 
the  things  which  was  at  stake  in  the  present  war.  The 
fate  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  is  itself  at  stake. 

32.  French  settlements  by  religious  refugees. — Only 
two  remarks  remain  to  be  made  before  concluding  this 
sketch  of  the  early  days  of  the  movement  of  the  expansion 
of  Europe,  which  we  have  carried  down  to  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.     One  relates  to  French 


32  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  then  later  also  to  certain  English  and  Dutch  settle- 
ments both  in  Africa  and  in  America  which  had  a  (lif- 
erent motive  from  those  named.  In  1558  Villegagnon, 
who  himself  turned  traitor  to  the  high  purpose,  had  led 
to  Rio  de  Janeiro  a  colony  of  French  Protestant  refugees 
sent  out  from  France  by  Admiral  Coligny.  To  this 
colony  went  women  and  little  children.  The  colonists 
sought  to  find  in  the  New  World  the  religious  and 
political  liberty  which  was  denied  them  in  France. 
Almost  the  same  story  repeated  itself  at  Beaufort  on 
the  island  of  Port  Royal  off  the  coast  of  South  Carolina. 
Here  also  was  a  bona  fide  settlement  of  Huguenot 
refugees  who  sought  just  what  the  Pilgrims  later  sought 
in  coming  to  Plymouth  and  the  Puritans  to  Massachu- 
setts Bay.  Huguenot  refugees  later  settled  among  the 
Dutch  in  South  Africa  and  again  in  New  Amsterdam, 
but  they  lost  their  identity  as  representatives  of  France. 
33.  English  and  Scotch  who  sought  religious  liberty. — 
Jamestown  in  Virginia,  settled  in  the  fourth  year  of 
James  I,  1607,  was  indeed  largely  a  commercial  venture, 
yet  not  lacking  a  religious  character.  Plymouth  and 
Salem  and  Boston  were  settlements  quite  on  the  model 
of  these  tragic  little  attempts  of  the  French  of  which 
we  have  spoken.  They  were  ultimately  upon  far  larger 
scale  and  achieved  a  significance  second  to  that  of  no 
settlements  ever  made  in  the  world.  These  settlers 
were  indeed  rarely  of  the  Quaker  or  of  the  missionary 
mind,  yet  they  were  not  exactly  conquerors.  Their 
trade  amounted  to  almost  nothing.  They  were  at 
first  religious  refugees,  and  then,  after  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  I,  political  refugees.  They  sought 
within  the  area  of  the  civil  and  spiritual  life  an  inde- 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  33 

pendence  and  democracy  which  were  not  accorded 
them  at  home.  Many  of  the  first  settlers  went  back 
to  England  after  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  had 
opened  up  to  them  the  prospect  of  transforming  England 
itself  according  to  their  mind.  They  left  Great  Britain 
again  after  the  downfall  of  the  Commonwealth.  They 
laid  the  foundations  of  states  and  churches  here  in 
America  which  have  made  America  what  it  is.  They 
achieved  immortal  distinction.  They  were  the  pre- 
cursors of  other  refugees,  civil  and  religious,  in  many 
portions  of  the  world.  The  issue  of  their  acts,  an  issue 
unforeseen  by  themselves,  has  made  this  episode  one  of 
the  great  chapters  in  history.  The  Scotch  who  left  Scot- 
land after  1661  and  Ireland  after  1692  had  much  the  same 
history.  We  note  here  the  injection  of  a  new  and  widely 
different  motive  from  that  either  of  conquest  or  of  com- 
merce into  the  course  of  events  with  which  we  deal. 

34.  Voyages  of  discovery  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century. — Finally,  in  curious  fashion  and  as  if  it  were  a 
belated  chapter  of  a  much  earlier  movement,  English 
navigators  of  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Cap- 
tain Cook  and  his  compeers,  discovered  or  rediscovered 
the  continents  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  and  almost 
all  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.  The  African  explorations 
of  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  a  still  more 
belated  chapter  of  this  same  phase  of  our  movement. 
In  the  case  of  those  continents  and  islands  in  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere,  no  sooner  were  they  discovered  and 
annexed  to  the  then  rapidly  expanding  British  colonial 
empire  than  British  trade,  British  political  ideals, 
British  social  life  and  religious  spirit  entered  at  once 
into  the  development  of  territories  for  the  most  part 


34  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

very  sparsely  settled,  and  whose  civilization,  in  so  far 
as  they  had  any,  had  probably  been  unchanged  for 
uncounted  generations.  Africa  on  the  other  hand  was 
reserved  to  be  the  area  of  the  struggle  of  the  European 
nations  for  colonial  possessions  late  in  the  nineteenth 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century. 

35.  Conclusion. — All  the  events  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking  point  to  the  fact  that  there  is  somewhere 
near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  dividing 
line  in  this  history  of  the  expansion  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
line  which  we  shall  more  and  more  clearly  note.  There 
are  certain  common  qualities  of  the  movement  so  far 
as  we  have  yet  traced  it.  We  might  call  the  era  thus 
far  depicted  that  of  the  expansion  of  Europe  mainly 
through  conquest  and  trade  and  finally  through  emi- 
gration of  refugees.  From  another  point  of  view  we 
might  describe  it  as  the  period  in  which  little  effort  was 
made  by  Europeans  to  alter  the  civilization  of  the 
races  with  which  they  came  in  contact,  whether  these 
were  already  highly  civilized  or  whether  on  the  other 
hand  they  had  no  civilization  at  all.  The  contacts  of 
Europeans  with  other  races  were  during  this  period  not 
without  traits  which  might  be  called  religious.  In  so 
far  as  their  efforts  were  of  a  missionary  character  they 
were  almost  exclusively  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church.  Protestant  men  of  profound  religious  con- 
viction were  finding  places  in  the  new  worlds.  They 
were  busied,  however,  laying  the  foundations  of  religious 
institutions  and  Christian  national  and  social  life  for 
themselves  and  not  yet  for  peoples  of  other  races. 
Protestants  had  barely  begun  to  enter  upon  their 
missionary  movement  before  1757. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE: 
THE  PERIOD  SINCE  1757 


CHAPTER  in 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE:  THE  PERIOD 

SINCE  1757 

36.  The  rivalry  of  England  and  France 

37.  The  British  East  India  Company 

38.  Sea  power  of  Great  Britain 

39.  Territorial  gains  in  India,  losses  in  America 

40.  The  old  motives  of  conquest  and  trade 

41.  The  new  motive,  propagandise! 

42.  Universal  ideals 

43.  New  enthusiasm  for  charity,  philanthropy,  and  reform 

44.  Change  of  view  in  government  under  the  Company 

45.  Relation  of  the  new  enthusiasm  for  missions 

46.  Common  elements 

47.  Common  methods 

48.  Identical  faults 

49.  Assimilation  of  vital  elements 

50.  Authoritative  character  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missions 

51.  Democratic  aspects  of  Protestant  missions 

52.  Parallel  of  Methodism  and  home  missions 

53.  Parallel  of  the  antislavery  movement 

54.  Change  of  mind  on  the  part  of  non-European  peoples 

55.  Racial  self -consciousness  in  the  East 

56.  The  example  of  India 

57.  The  example  of  Turkey 

58.  The  example  of  Japan 

59.  The  spirit  of  the  Japanese 

60.  The  example  of  China 

61.  Effect  of  the  war 

62.  Assimilation  of  West  and  East 

63.  Nature  of  this  assimilation 

64.  Appropriation  of  certain  outward  factors 

65.  Naturalization  of  the  deeper  and  more  permanent  elements 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE:  THE  PERIOD 

SINCE  1757 

36.  Tlie  rivalry  of  England  and  France. — One  of  the 
dominating  aspects  of  the  history  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  Europe  was  the  struggle  for  mastery  between 
Great  Britain  and  France.  This  contest  was  carried 
on  not  merely  in  Europe  but  also  in  Asia,  in  Africa, 
and  in  America.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
the  participation  of  England  and  of  France  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
the  so-called  French  and  Indian  wars  the  issue  of  which 
gave  Canada  to  Great  Britain,  the  victory  of  Clive 
over  the  French  in  India,  which  opened  the  way  for 
the  ultimate  British  conquest  of  the  whole  peninsula, 
were  but  episodes  in  one  great  struggle.  Already  it 
was  beginning  to  be  evident  that  in  some  respects  the 
fate  of  oriental  peoples  was  being  settled  in  the  chan- 
celleries of  Europe.  Conversely  policies  of  European 
states  were  being  determined,  wars  on  European  soil 
were  being  fought,  in  view  of  competing  interests  of 
the  various  states  in  the  opposite  hemisphere.  Already 
it  was  being  demonstrated  how  great  a  role  sea  power 
was  to  play  in  the  future  as  the  nations  sought  to  weld 
continents  into  an  imperial  unity. 

37.  The  British  East  India  Company. — Thirteen 
years  after  the  defeat  of  the  Armada,  two  years  before 
the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  1601,  a  charter  was  granted 
to  the  British  East  India  Company.    This  commercial 

37 


3  8  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

organization  had  decisive  influence  in  the  building  up 
of  the  colonial  empire  of  Great  Britain  as  it  is  today. 
There  were  in  other  countries,  notably  in  Holland, 
companies  which  existed  for  the  furtherance  of  world- 
wide commerce.  No  one  of  them  attained  so  soon  or 
exercised  so  long  the  privileges  of  a  virtual  monopoly 
within  the  areas  assigned  to  it  by  its  government. 
None  ever  intrenched  itself  in  the  economic  and  social 
life  of  its  own  country  as  did  the  British  East  India 
Company  through  Parliament  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Communication  with  far  lands  in  those  days 
was  difficult.  All  the  colonial  administrations  had  need 
that  discretion  be  accorded  them  in  their  scattered 
settlements.  None  ever  had  granted  to  it  the  position 
of  a  quasi-government  in  the  sense  in  which  this  was 
yielded  by  crown  and  Parliament  to  the  British  Com- 
pany. To  all  intents  and  purposes  the  Company  was 
in  India  the  government  of  Great  Britain.  Many  of 
the  abuses  which  led  to  successive  modifications  and  at 
last  to  the  revocation  of  the  charter  of  the  Company 
were  due  to  what  now  seems  to  us  an  inexcusable  con- 
fusion of  powers.  Nevertheless,  under  the  masterful 
leadership  of  such  men  as  Clive  and  Hastings  and 
Wellesley  this  quasi-governmental  character  of  its 
regime  explains  the  amazing  rapidity  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Company's  interests  and  the  consolidation 
of  its  power. 

38.  Sea  power  of  Great  Britain. — Add  to  this  the 
fact  that  the  decline  of  Portugal  and  Spain  had  given 
Great  Britain  the  mastery  of  the  seas.  The  Dutch 
were  not  numerous  enough  long  to  dispute  that  mastery. 
Richelieu  in  1629  thought  to  make  the  French  navy 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  39 

equal  to  the  British.  Even  Napoleon  until  1805  cher- 
ished the  same  dream.  The  French  overseas  empire 
which  had  not  been  commercially  successful  under 
Louis  XIV  was  sacrificed  through  the  stupidity  and 
corruption  of  the  monarchy  under  Louis  XV.  We  have 
here  suggested  some  at  least  of  the  conditions  which 
led  to  the  enormous  expansion  of  Great  Britain  both 
in  respect  of  territory  and  of  trade  after  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

39.  Territorial  gains  in  India,  losses  in  America. — 
The  British  were  unwilling  any  longer  to  trade  on  the 
coasts  of  India  without  penetrating  the  interior.  War- 
like native  states  confronted  both  French  and  British. 
The  French  had  shrewdly  played  off  these  states  one 
against  another  and  all  against  England.  The  Com- 
pany did  the  same  against  the  French.  After  the 
Battle  of  Plassey,  Great  Britain  inaugurated  a  series  of 
military  movements  against  the  native  principalities 
covering,  with  intermissions,  fully  a  century.  These 
never  ceased  until  the  whole  peninsula,  and  finally 
Burma  also,  were  added  to  the  territory  owning  alle- 
giance to  the  British  crown.  While  this  conquest  in 
India  was  still  in  its  beginning  Great  Britain  lost  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  colonies  of  North  America  which  she 
had  long  fostered.  It  has  been  said  that  she  lost  them 
by  a  fatuous  war  which  might  easily  have  been  avoided. 
Rather  she  lost  them  by  a  development  of  independence 
within  the  colonies  themselves  which  rendered  their  loss 
inevitable  so  long  as  the  view  then  current  of  the  relation 
of  colonies  to  the  mother-country  obtained .  She  retained, 
however,  Canada  and  British  America,  part  of  which  she 
had  only  a  few  years  earlier  acquired  from  France. 


40  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

40.  The  old  motives  of  conquest  and  trade. — We  might 
say  therefore  that  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  something  like  a  revival  of  the  impulse  of 
territorial  aggrandizement.  Of  these  conquests  for  the 
next  century  and  a  half,  by  far  the  greater  part  has 
fallen  to  the  share  of  Great  Britain.  Yet  France  has 
in  our  own  day  in  Africa  recouped  herself  for  many  of 
her  territorial  losses.  Italy  has,  also  in  Africa,  begun 
to  take  part  in  a  movement  in  which  at  the  first  she 
had  no  place.  Germany  found  Africa  practically  the 
only  place  left  for  large  territorial  gains.  In  this  same 
period  there  has  been  an  expansion  of  the  trade  of 
European  nations  such  as  makes  the  trade  of  the  earlier 
portion  of  our  era  seem  trifling  by  comparison.  In 
this  trade  Great  Britain  again  has  had  by  far  the  largest 
share.  Yet  states  like  Germany,  which  in  the  earlier 
period  had  no  portion,  have  come  to  take  large  place. 
Russia  during  this  period  gained  a  vast  though  loosely 
organized  Asiatic  empire.  Even  the  United  States, 
which  is  of  itself  only  an  extension  of  Europe,  has  come 
to  seek  its  share  in  world-traffic  and  committed  itself 
almost  unintentionally  to  the  holding  of  a  subject 
population  overseas.  One  cannot  say  therefore  that  in 
the  nineteenth  century  the  old  motives  of  territorial 
aggrandizement  and  of  trade  have  had  no  place. 

41.  The  new  motive,  propagandism. — In  the  century 
and  three  quarters  which  have  elapsed  since  the  vic- 
tories of  Clive  at  Plassey  and  of  Wolfe  on  the  Plains 
of  Abraham  a  new  motive  has,  however,  entered  into 
the  movement  of  European  expansion,  the  motive  of 
propagandism.  There  has  come  also  within  the  last 
half-century  an  extraordinary  change  in  the  attitude  of 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  41 

Asiatic  peoples  toward  Europeans  and  the  movement  of 
the  expansion  of  Christendom.  Of  this  change  of  attitude 
Japan  is  by  far  the  most  conspicuous  example.  China 
is  now  following  eagerly  in  the  footsteps  of  Japan. 
Many  things  in  India  illustrate  the  same  change  of  feeling. 
42.  Universal  ideals.— After  1775  a  new  spirit  began 
to  show  itself  in  the  dealings  of  European  powers,  but 
especially  of  Great  Britain,  with  Asiatic  peoples.  The 
subject  peoples  were  henceforth  not  merely  to  be  an- 
nexed to  growing  empires,  nor  were  they  simply  to  be 
exploited  in  the  interests  of  trade.  Not  merely  was 
something  to  be  taken  from  them,  their  liberty  or  their 
goods.  To  them  were  to  be  extended  the  benefits  of 
the  civilization  of  European  peoples.  Upon  them  were 
to  be  bestowed  gifts,  especially  those  relating  to  the 
higher  aspects  of  life,  governmental,  social,  intellectual, 
moral,  and  religious.  These  characteristics  of  the 
European  civilization  were  the  product  of  long  ages  of 
struggle  in  the  Western  World.  To  some  of  them 
Europeans  felt  that  the  oriental  world  presented  no 
satisfactory  counterpart.  There  was  often  sufficient 
provincialism  even  in  this  view,  but  it  was  better  than 
no  view  at  all.  It  began  to  be  felt,  especially  in  Britain, 
that  not  only  had  conquest  and  trade  thus  far  been 
negligent  of  all  the  higher  aspects  of  life  among  Asiatics 
but  that  the  inner  principles  of  European  civilization 
had  often  been  grossly  violated  in  the  progress  of  con- 
quest and  trade.  Christendom  had  met  ancient  civili- 
zations, not  merely  with  no  perception  of  their  values, 
but  with  no  recollection  of  the  higher  values  in  its  own. 
It  had  met  barbarous  peoples  by  the  methods  of  more 
powerful  barbarians. 


42  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

43.  New  enthusiasm  for  charity,  philanthropy,  and 
reform. — There  passed  over  Europe  after  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  a  great  enthusiasm  for  humanity. 
The  political  movement  which  came  to  its  full  fruition 
in  the  French  Revolution  had  at  its  back  a  contention 
for  the  rights  of  man  as  man.  It  was  only  one  step 
from  the  contention  that  these  rights  were  shared  by 
men  of  all  classes  within  a  given  nation  to  the  assertion 
that  they  were  shared  by  the  people  of  every  nation. 
The  atrocities  of  slavery  and  of  the  slave  trade  were 
brought  home  to  men  who  a  few  decades  earlier  had 
viewed  these  with  complete  indifference.  Many  re- 
forms, especially  economic  and  social,  which  still  wait 
for  their  fulfilment  are  the  logical  issue  of  contentions 
which  were  then  laid  down.  It  was  the  quickened 
conscience  of  Great  Britain  which  led  to  attacks  in 
Parliament  upon  the  policy  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. The  revelations  of  the  barbarity  and  corruption 
of  the  Company  appalled  the  public  mind.  The 
impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings  for  conduct  no  worse 
than  that  which  had  been  condoned  in  the  case  of  his 
predecessors  was  an  event  full  of  significance.  It  was 
the  more  striking  because  of  the  really  brilliant  services 
which  Hastings  had  rendered. 

44.  Change  of  view  in  government  under  the  Company. 
— Both  Parliament  and  the  Company  launched  now 
upon  ventures  for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of 
the  subject  peoples  in  India  of  a  sort  which  the  men 
of  the  previous  generation  would  never  have  considered. 
Great  educational  projects  were  set  on  foot.  Partici- 
pation of  the  Indians  in  the  government  of  their  own 
land    began    to    be   provided    for.     Administration    of 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  43 

justice  as  Great  Britain  understood  justice  came  to  be 
viewed  as  one  of  the  responsibilities  of  government  in 
these  lands.  Although  the  government  was  chary  of 
interfering  with  social  customs,  and  above  all  with 
religious  prejudices,  cruel  and  obscene  rites  and  cere- 
monies began  to  be  done  away  with  and  abominable 
customs  to  be  abolished.  Even  under  the  Company, 
whose  charter  was  not  finally  withdrawn  until  1858,  there 
had  arisen,  especially  after  1829,  a  generation  of  civil  and 
military  functionaries  in  British  India  whose  high  sense 
of  responsibility,  whose  enthusiasm  for  every  good  thing 
in  the  life  of  the  Indian  peoples,  and  whose  determina- 
tion to  do  away  with  the  evils  of  the  ancient  system  of 
government  and  business  cannot  be  too  highly  praised. 

45.  Relation  of  the  new  enthusiasm  for  missions. — 
It  is  easy  to  see  that,  of  this  enthusiasm  for  humanity 
which  marked  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
found  utterance  in  revolutions  and  reforms  in  many 
areas  of  life,  the  outbreak  of  missionary  zeal  which 
brought  the  Protestant  churches  into  the  field  for  the 
first  time  was  but  a  part.  The  new  missionary  move- 
ment was  but  a  phase  of  that  awakening  to  the  rights 
and  dignity  and  destiny  of  mankind  which  in  all  Euro- 
pean countries  and  America  had  vast  effect  in  preparing 
the  way  for  the  progress  of  democracy  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  As  applied  to  the  men  of  conquered  races, 
exploited,  oppressed,  enslaved  as  these  were  in  other 
portions  of  the  world,  the  impulse  showed  itself  in 
efforts  both  to  ameliorate  conditions  in  this  life  and  to 
prepare  men's  souls  for  the  life  to  come. 

46.  Common  elements. — The  same  sense  of  the  value  of 
human  life  in  all  its  relations  animated  both  endeavors. 


44  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

There  was  the  same  sense  of  the  wrongs  which  man- 
kind had  suffered,  the  same  idealism  about  the  life 
of  all  men  if  only  they  could  be  delivered  from  their 
disadvantages.  This  made  of  one  man  a  passionate 
abolitionist,  a  prison  reformer,  by  and  by  a  Chartist, 
a  socialist,  set  on  redressing  some  outward  obvious 
wrong.  It  made  of  another  the  enthusiastic  pietist 
or  evangelical,  who  himself  cared  little  for  the  outward 
life,  who  held  that  the  greatest  wrong  ever  committed 
against  men  had  been  the  withholding  of  the  knowledge 
of  redemption  as  it  is  in  Christ.  The  otherworldliness 
of  these  men  was  scoffed  at  by  their  opponents.  The 
unqualified  individualism  of  their  view  of  religion  was 
indeed  opposed  to  the  rising  social  apprehensions  of 
the  time.  The  antithesis  of  those  who  seek  to  reach 
every  social  problem  through  the  transformation  of 
personality  and,  on  the  other  hand,  of  those  who  hope 
by  change  of  circumstance  to  quicken  and  uplift  the 
soul  is  with  us  still.  Yet,  when  all  is  said,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  two  tendencies  did  have  their  origin  in  the 
common  love  of  mankind. 

47.  Common  methods. — With  the  progress  of  the 
nineteenth  century  humanitarian  endeavor  moved  stead- 
ily toward  the  higher  levels  of  the  moral  and  spiritual 
life  of  man.  Conversely,  the  religious  zeal  which  at 
first  repudiated  the  thought  of  anything  but  soul- 
salvation  has  gradually  perceived  the  unity  of  man's 
life.  It  has  perceived  that  there  can  be  no  salvation 
of  the  soul  which  does  not  seek  to  show  itself  in  the 
doing  away  of  evil  and  the  bringing  in  of  every  form 
of  good  in  this  world  also.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  with 
missionaries  has  lain,  in  most  of  the  lands  of  which  we 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  45 

speak,  the  inauguration  of  almost  every  form  of  charity 
and  philanthropy,  of  educational  and  social  and  eco- 
nomic regeneration.  On  the  other  hand  those  who  had 
spoken  scornfully  of  proselyting,  who  repudiated  the 
thought  of  meddling  with  the  inner  life  of  man,  who 
wished  to  be  merely  civilizers,  have  discovered  that  the 
deep  roots  of  civilization  are  always  in  morals  and 
faith  and  that  the  end  of  civilization  is  the  character 
of  the  men  whom  it  raises  up. 

48.  Identical  faults. — There  was  a  period,  indeed,  in 
which  the  civilizers  and  the  religionists  alike  were 
guilty  of  a  common  fault.  They  manifested  a  naive 
exaggeration  of  the  value  of  the  forms  of  culture  or 
again  of  faith  which  were  familiar  to  themselves.  They 
took  smugly  superior  attitudes  toward  the  civilizations 
and  the  faiths  of  other  men.  There  was  a  period  when 
it  seemed  self-evident  to  these  conscientious  well- 
wishers  of  mankind  that  there  was  but  one  religion, 
just  as  also  to  some  of  the  self-constituted  reformers 
of  the  economic  life  of  the  effete  Orient  it  was  obvious 
that  money  divided  itself  naturally  into  pounds,  shil- 
lings, and  pence.  All  those  who  had  been  born  outside 
of  the  circle  of  these  indisputable  benefits  were  lost 
either  for  this  world  or  for  the  world  to  come  or  both. 
Remnants  of  this  absurd  racial  and  religious  provincial- 
ism still  survive.  The  larger  part  of  it  has  passed 
away.  The  civilizations  which  the  various  races  have 
developed  in  the  long  ages  of  their  isolation  are  now 
seen  to  have  each  one  of  them  its  own  peculiar  elements 
of  beauty  and  power  as  well  as  also  probably  its  par- 
ticular defects.  The  faiths  which  have  sustained  the 
different  races  in  their  long  struggle  upward  are  seen 


46  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

to  have  had  not  merely  a  profound  relation  to  the 
nature  of  the  races  among  whom  they  have  prevailed. 
They  have  emphasized  also  particular  spiritual  problems 
and  have  offered  touching  and  wonderful  solutions  of 
those  problems  which  the  world  would  be  the  poorer 
were  it  to  forget. 

49.  Assimilation  of  vital  elements. — If  all  this  was 
evident  before  the  war  it  is  still  more  evident  in  the 
light  of  that  which  the  war  has  brought  about.  No 
one  religion  is  simply  to  take  the  place  of  all  the  others, 
as  perhaps  our  ancestors  dreamed  when  they  talked 
about  the  triumphs  of  the  cross  of  Christ.  Even  with 
those  men  of  new  races  with  whom  Christianity  may 
take  the  place  of  their  indigenous  faith  it  will  receive 
form  and  color  from  their  ancient  inheritance  and  from 
their  especial  environment.  The  indigenous  faiths  may 
be  profoundly  altered  by  the  changes  in  civilization  and 
by  the  rivalry  of  Christianity.  It  is  not  likely  that 
they  will  soon  disappear.  Only  those  who  do  not  know 
the  history  of  their  own  religion  fail  to  realize  that 
Christianity  also,  in  the  two  thousand  years  that  it 
has  been  journeying  from  nation  to  nation,  has  gone 
through  many  such  transformations  and  amalgamations 
with  elements  from  the  past  of  the  races  who  adopted  it. 

50.  Authoritative  character  of  tlie  Roman  Catholic 
missions. — One  more  point  needs  to  be  touched  upon 
in  this  connection.  In  it  the  contrast  of  the  most 
modern  and  especially  of  the  Protestant  propaganda 
with  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missions  of  the  six- 
teenth century  comes  out.  In  that  earlier  stage  which 
we  might  call  the  Roman  Catholic  period  of  the  expan- 
sion of  Christendom  the  effort  for  the  spread  of  Chris- 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  47 

tianity  was  official.  It  was  the  work  of  the  orders, 
primarily  of  course  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  It  was 
the  task  of  recognized  agencies  in  the  Christian  insti- 
tution. It  was  authoritative  and  had  behind  it  the 
highest  ecclesiastic  responsibility.  It  went  out  from 
the  church  and  sought  to  bring  men  into  the  church. 
It  gained  much  by  this  authoritative  character.  It 
had  plan.  It  avoided  waste.  Yet  there  were  limita- 
tions and  losses  which  went  far  to  offset  this  gain. 

51.  Democratic  aspects  of  Protestant  missions. — In 
contrast  with  this,  in  the  great  outburst  of  missionary 
enthusiasm  which  followed  the  spread  of  the  Pietist 
movement  and  had  its  first  signal  illustration  in  the 
work  of  the  Moravian  communities,  one  may  say  that 
the  absence  of  ecclesiastic  authority  and  responsibility 
was  almost  the  universal  trait.  There  was  no  central 
religious  authority  among  Protestants.  Such  developed 
organizations  as  existed  among  them  were  at  the  first 
almost  invariably  hostile  to  the  missionary  movement. 
Pietists  were  not  looked  upon  with  favor  among  the 
Lutherans.  Those  Independents  who,  with  certain  mem- 
bers of  other  dissenting  bodies,  formed  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1795  were  not  the  representatives  of 
the  dissenting  churches  as  such.  The  establishment  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  was  something  like  an 
active  rebellion  within  the  Anglican  church,  so  different 
were  the  views  which  obtained  among  these  evangelical 
enthusiasts  from  the  views  which  were  held  in  authori- 
tative circles  in  the  Establishment  at  that  time.  The 
first  missionary  societies  were  not  as  a  rule  represen- 
tative of  any  denomination.  They  were  groups  of  men 
and  women  from  various  sects  drawn  together  by  their 


48  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

interest  in  this  particular  cause,  a  cause  in  which  their 
denominations  were  frequently  not  interested. 

52.  Parallel  of  Methodism  and  home  missions. — It 
must  be  remembered  that  in  very  similar  fashion  Wesley 
had  felt  called  upon  to  inaugurate,  in  1738,  what  we 
should  now  call  his  great  home  missionary  movement 
for  the  neglected  among  the  population  of  the  new 
towns  and  the  declining  rural  districts  in  England  and 
among  the  miners  in  Wales.  Although  he  was  a  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  England,  he  yet  found  himself 
opposed  by  the  church.  The  movement  which  he  had 
intended  to  be  a  reform  within  that  church  ended  in 
the  complete  separation  of  the  Wesleyans  from  that 
church.  Yet  the  church  has  since  sought  to  accomplish 
many  of  the  purposes  which  Wesley's  eager  spirit  set 
before  itself.  Similarly  the  great  missionary  societies, 
most  of  them,  have  in  the  course  of  the  nineteenth 
century  been  appropriated  by  the  churches  when  these 
at  last  came  to  realize  the  significance  of  the  cause 
which  at  first  they  had  opposed.  Most  of  the  mis- 
sionary societies  were  originally  chartered  corporations. 
They  were  not  ecclesiastical  bodies  nor  even  the 
servants  of  such  bodies. 

53.  Parallel  of  the  antislavery  movement. — In  some- 
thing of  the  same  manner,  the  great  secular  reforming 
movements  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which 
were  the  congeners  of  the  Protestant  missionary  move- 
ment, began  in  almost  every  case  in  the  work  of 
individuals  or  of  small  groups  who  had  upon  their  con- 
science the  prosecution  of  a  particular  reforming  task. 
The  antislavery  movement  had  this  history  in  Great 
Britain.     In  America  those  who  opposed  slavery  had 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  49 

in  the  end  to  face  a  civil  war.  It  is  one  of  the  pathetic 
curiosities  of  the  situation  that  they  had  also  very 
generally  to  face  the  hostility  of  the  clergy  and  the 
Christian  church,  which  in  this  particular  sided  often 
with  organized  society.  The  missionary  movement  in 
India  had  for  a  generation  all  the  power  of  the  British 
East  India  Company  against  it.  Yet  in  the  end  Protes- 
tant missions  have  certainly  exerted  a  greater  influence 
upon  education,  medical  work,  charity,  philanthropy, 
and  reform  in  the  lands  to  which  they  have  gone  than 
they  would  have  done  had  they  represented  an  authori- 
tative institution  like  the  Roman  church.  It  is  probable 
that  they  have  also  exerted  a  greater  influence  than  they 
would  have  done  had  they  had  from  the  beginning  the 
favor  of  the  European  states  which  dominated  the  peoples 
whom  the  missions  sought  to  aid. 

54.  Change  of  mind  on  the  part  of  non-European 
peoples. — In  the  last  sections  various  aspects  of  a  change 
of  mind  on  the  part  of  European  nations  toward  the 
peoples  of  the  Orient  were  mentioned.  That  change 
took  place  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
After  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  came 
a  great  change  also  in  the  attitude  of  Indians  and 
Japanese  toward  the  ideas  and  influences  of  the  West. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  we  have  seen 
the  same  change  in  the  attitude  of  China  and  of  the 
Turkish  Empire.  No  one  of  all  the  changes  in  the 
oriental  world  within  the  last  two  generations  is  more 
conspicuous  or  significant  than  is  this  alteration  of  the 
oriental  mind.  A  warlike  nation  like  Japan,  which 
until  1854  had  been  hermetically  sealed  for  two  cen- 
turies against  all  influences  of  the  West,  has  in  fifty 


50  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

years  freely  adopted  large  elements  of  Western  civili- 
zation and  become  in  some  sense  a  Western  nation  in 
the  East.  A  peaceful  nation  like  China,  which  so  late 
as  1900  was  fatuous  enough  to  throw  down  the  gauntlet 
to  all  the  world  at  once,  now  seeks  in  feverish  haste 
to  transform  herself  according  to  the  principles  of  a 
civilization  which  two  decades  ago  she  despised. 

55.  Racial  self-consciousness  in  the  East. — Certainly 
Asiatics  do  not  view  with  greater  favor  than  formerly 
the  extension  of  Western  sovereignties  or  the  contin- 
uance of  those  which  already  exist.  Japanese  and 
Chinese  have  perceived,  however,  that  the  adoption  of 
Western  arms  and  training  for  their  armies  and  navies 
and  of  Western  methods  in  their  business,  the  appro- 
priation of  the  results  of  scientific  discovery  and  inven- 
tion in  all  areas  of  life,  represent  the  only  method  by 
which  the  peoples  of  the  East  can  make  stand  against 
the  aggression  of  the  nations  of  the  West.  It  is  not 
that  there  is  less  of  racial  self -consciousness  and  national 
aspiration  than  in  former  years  among  these  peoples. 
Quite  the  contrary;  the  resurgence  of  racial  and  national 
feeling  is  one  of  the  marked  characteristics  of  the  pres- 
ent stage  of  our  movement.  It  is  a  feeling  which  has 
been  directly  fostered  by  the  spread  of  the  Western 
empires  and  the  violence  and  injustice  with  which  that 
expansion  has  too  often  been  attended.  Equally  it 
has  been  fostered  by  the  growth  of  liberty  and  enlight- 
enment and  that  amelioration  of  life  among  oriental 
peoples  which  it  has  been  the  conscientious  aim  of 
high-minded  administrators  of  Western  governments,  as 
in  India,  or  again  of  European  and  American  missionary 
enthusiasts  in  Turkey  or  China,  to  bring  about. 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  51 

56.  The  example  of  India. — The  governors  of  India 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  grew  ashamed 
of  the  neglect  which  had  characterized  the  earlier  period 
and  inaugurated  a  system  of  education  which  is  one 
of  the  glories  of  India  today.  They  esteemed  that 
this  education  in  the  history  and  principles  of  Western 
and  particularly  of  British  life  would  tend  to  bind 
India  to  Great  Britain.  As  a  matter  of  fact  no  incon- 
siderable part  of  the  unrest  which  exists  in  India  today 
exists  among  those  who  on  the  very  basis  of  English 
education,  of  British  law  and  liberty,  of  Anglo-Saxon 
freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  agitate  in  the  sense 
of  the  phrase  " India  for  the  Indians."  To  be  sure 
the  war  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  there  exists  a 
very  strong  pro-British  sentiment  in  India  and  this 
among  the  classes  most  influential  in  the  life  of  the 
Indian  peoples.  Here  is  a  great  tribute  to  the  essential 
justice  of  the  British  rule.  Yet  one  would  altogether 
deceive  himself  if  he  failed  to  realize  that  even  this 
fact  is  also  an  evidence  of  the  intensity  of  Indian  racial 
aspiration.  The  leading  minds  of  India  believe  that 
those  racial  aspirations  have  more  hope  of  realization 
under  British  administration,  for  the  present  at  least, 
than  they  could  possibly  have  in  an  India  nominally 
independent  but  really  delivered  over  to  division  within 
itself  or  else  subject  to  some  other  foreign  power. 

57.  The  example  of  Turkey. — The  awakening  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire  manifested  in  the  revolution  of  1908 
and  1909  surprised  those  who  knew  that  empire  best. 
It  was  the  result,  in  part,  of  an  inner  transformation 
of  certain  subject  peoples  of  the  empire  by  elements  of 
Western  education  and  of  moral  and  religious  stimulus 


52  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

which  had  been  introduced  into  Turkey  by  missionaries 
within  the  last  ninety  years  under  treaties  with  Euro- 
pean nations,  which  the  Turkish  government  would 
have  been  glad  at  any  time  to  break.  It  was  the  result 
in  a  measure  also  of  a  parallel  recognition,  hesitant 
indeed  and  vacillating,  yet  in  a  measure  genuine,  upon 
the  part  even  of  Turks  themselves.  They  had  come 
to  feel  that  the  only  hope  of  escaping  the  pressure 
which  Western  powers,  ever  since  1829,  had  exerted 
upon  the  Porte  lay  in  permitting  its  army  to  be  trained 
after  European  fashion  and  some,  at  least,  of  its  admin- 
istrative and  educational  functionaries  to  be  educated 
in  the  capitals  of  Europe.  The  revolution  represented 
only  a  more  consistent  adoption  by  the  party  of  progress 
of  a  view  which  the  old  sultan  alternately  adopted  and 
abandoned.  It  was  the  view  that  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment must  be  in  some  measure  Europeanized  if  the 
empire  was  to  avoid  dismemberment. 

58.  The  example  of  Japan. — Japan,  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  admitted  Portuguese  traders  and 
presently  also  their  Dutch  and  English  competitors, 
not  indeed  gladly,  yet  without  any  of  the  fierce  hostility 
which  later  showed  itself.  She  permitted  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a  Christian  propaganda  in  the  Japanese  Empire 
which  for  a  time  had  extraordinary  success.  Then, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Japanese  turned 
upon  the  Christians  and  indeed  upon  all  foreigners. 
They  closed  their  ports  against  traders.  Through  the 
insular  position  of  Japan  and  by  the  warlike  character 
of  its  population  they  were  able  to  carry  out  this  isola- 
tion of  the  island  empire  from  the  world  in  a  manner 
which  seems  almost  incredible.     In  the  year  1854  a  com- 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  53 

mercial  treaty  with  Japan  was  practically  forced  by  the 
United  States.  Fifteen  years  later  the  Japanese  showed 
themselves  entirely  convinced  that  the  only  safety  of  their 
empire  lay  in  the  adoption  of  large  elements  of  Western 
civilization.  They  inaugurated  reforms,  political,  civil, 
social,  educational,  and  economic,  which  have  within  fifty 
years  made  Japan  an  effective  competitor  of  any  nation 
in  Christendom  in  almost  any  area  of  life. 

59.  The  spirit  of  the  Japanese. — No  one  imagines 
that  the  Japanese  have  gone  through  this  miraculous 
transformation  because  they  have  not  a  proud  sense 
of  their  own  race,  of  the  glory  of  its  past,  or  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  its  future.  The  reverse  is  the  case.  They 
have  transformed  Japan  in  order  that  they  might  remain 
Japanese.  One  might  say  that  we  have  thus  in  Japan 
the  most  conspicuous  example  of  the  effect  of  the  meas- 
urable Europeanizing  of  a  portion  of  the  Orient  upon  the 
free  and  enthusiastic  movement  of  the  mind  and  temper 
of  the  people  themselves.  It  has  taken  place  in  a  nation 
upon  whose  soil  no  European  conqueror  ever  set  foot. 
One  might  say  that  as  we  think  of  Japan  we  gain  a  new 
sense  of  our  phrase  "the  expansion  of  Europe."  We 
realize  that  this  expansion  is  not  limited  to  relatively 
empty  continents,  like  America,  which  European  settlers 
filled,  nor  yet  to  populous  territories  like  India,  in  which 
European  colonial  empires  have  been  set  up.  The  phrase 
is  applicable  also  to  a  country  which  has  done  all  that  it 
has  done  in  Europeanizing  itself  in  order  that  no  Euro- 
pean empire  may  be  there  set  up. 

60.  The  example  of  China. — China  admitted  Portu- 
guese, Dutch,  and  English  .traders  to  certain  of  her 
seaports  practically  at  the  same  time  of  which  we 


54  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

spoke  in  reference  to  Japan.  She  admitted  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries soon  after  the  death  of  Francis  Xavier.  In 
China  also  these  missions  achieved  at  the  first  astound- 
ing success.  From  China  also  they  were  ejected  with 
something  like  the  same  severity.  China  also,  though 
never  with  the  same  effectiveness,  sought  to  exclude 
from  the  Celestial  Empire  the  foreigner  with  all  his 
ways  and  works.  So  remarkable  an  episode  as  the 
siege  of  the  legations  in  Peking  in  the  summer  of  1900 
must  be  interpreted  as  the  last  spasm  of  old  China  in 
the  effort  to  prevent  the  spread  of  European  influences. 
With  the  failure  of  that  effort  even  the  government  of 
the  Dowager  saw  itself  compelled  to  make  the  same 
decision  which  Japan  had  taken  forty  years  before. 
It  must  accept  a  measure  of  Europeanization  or  cease 
to  be  an  autonomous  power.  Because  the  Europeani- 
zation did  not  proceed  fast  enough  for  the  enthusiasts 
in  China  the  Manchu  dynasty  was  dethroned  in  the 
revolution  of  19 13  and  China  declared  a  republic.  A 
startling  radicalism  is  the  direct  expression  of  the 
quickened  racial  and  national  enthusiasm  of  the  most 
conservative  people  in  the  world. 

61.  Effect  of  the  war. — There  has  been,  indeed,  a 
general  rapprochement  due  to  increased  intercourse  of 
nations  within  the  last  generation.  Considerable  num- 
bers of  the  upper  classes  from  all  oriental  countries 
traveled  and  studied  in  European  countries  and  in 
America.  Large  numbers  of  the  working  classes  had 
found  temporary  employment  in  Western  lands  and 
then  returned  to  their  own.  There  was  a  growing 
recognition  that  the  strong  points  of  one  civilization 
might  He  in  one  direction  and  those  of  another  in  quite 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE     55 

a  different  direction.  There  was  a  measure,  none  too 
great,  of  international  good-will.  This  international 
good-will  has  been  in  some  directions  gravely  dimin- 
ished by  the  war.  In  some  other  directions  it  has 
been  greatly  increased.  The  bringing  of  the  nations 
of  the  East  into  the  life-and-death  struggle  of  the  West 
will  have  altered  profoundly  the  position  of  the  Eastern 
nations  with  reference  to  world-problems.  The  men  of 
the  score  of  races  who  have  fought  on  the  battlefields 
of  Europe  will  never  again  take  up  the  same  position 
which  they  had  before  they  fought.  The  men  of 
Europe  and  America  can  never  again  assign  them  to 
the  same  position.  In  the  problems  of  reconstruction 
which  will  face  the  whole  world  when  the  war  is  over, 
Asia  and  also  Africa  will  have  part  in  a  manner  never 
before  dreamed  of.  The  general  assumption  of  the 
superiority  of  Western  civilization  has  been  rudely 
shaken.  It  has  been  shaken  for  orientals.  It  has  been 
shaken  for  Europeans  and  Americans  themselves.  It 
is  not  true  that  in  the  minds  of  thoughtful  men  in  tne 
East  the  war  has  in  principle  discredited  Christianity. 
Christendom  is  discredited  because  it  has  fallen  so  far 
below  the  level  of  Christianity.  Chinese  men  know 
this  as  well  as  do  Englishmen  and  Americans. 

62.  Assimilation  of  West  and  East. — The  things 
which  we  have  been  saying  show  that  one  outstanding 
trait  of  the  contacts  of  West  and  East  in  the  nineteenth 
century  has  been  what  we  may  call  the  tendency  to 
assimilation  of  West  and  East.  Conquests  have  con- 
tinued. In  Africa  especially,  European  lust  of  conquest 
led  after  1878  to  a  veritable  scramble  for  territorial  pos- 
session.   Trade  has  been  more  extensive  than  ever  before. 


56  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Yet  there  has  been  also  a  disposition  upon  the  part  of  men 
of  the  West  to  impart  all  elements  of  their  life  to  the  men 
of  the  East.  Conversely,  there  has  been  a  disposition  on 
the  part  of  these  latter  to  receive  and  naturalize  among 
themselves  many  elements,  both  the  superficial  and  the 
deeper  ones,  of  Western  civilization.  Motives  on  both 
sides  have  been  complex.  There  is  now  a  tendency 
toward  a  measurable  uniformity  of  type  of  civilization 
which  everywhere  shows  itself.  Certain  elements  of  the 
life  of  Europe  and  America  with  which  we  are  familiar 
at  home  meet  us  in  every  land  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth  in  curious  juxtaposition  with  elements  native  to 
the  particular  region  to  which  we  have  transported  our- 
selves. You  may  pass  a  door  in  Shanghai  and  see  a 
woman  with  bound  feet  speaking  through  a  telephone. 
63.  Nature  of  this  assimilation. — When  we  reflect 
that  the  European-American  civilization  is  no  better 
than  it  is,  we  have  moments  of  profound  depression. 
We  have  times  when  we  deeply  deplore  this  tendency 
to  assimilation.  We  wonder  if  all  that  is  great  and 
beautiful  in  the  ancient  civilizations  of  the  East  is  to 
disappear  before  the  advance  of  a  civilization  concern- 
ing which  we  must  ourselves  admit  that,  although  it 
has  elements  which  are  great  and  good,  it  has  mon- 
strous elements  of  evil  as  well.  If  we  really  believed 
that  the  European  civilization  was  to  displace  all 
others  we  might  well  doubt  concerning  the  issue  of  a 
movement  begun  long  ago,  which  has  now  passed  com- 
pletely beyond  our  control  and  of  which  the  results 
are  highly  problematical.  The  comfort  lies  in  the  fact 
that  no  such  complete  displacement  of  ancient  civiliza- 
tions, cultures,  or  religions  is  going  to  take  place.    There 


THE  EXPANSION  OF  MODERN  EUROPE  57 

will  be  a  measure  of  uncertainty  in  the  movement  at 
the  first.  In  the  last  analysis  we  may  be  sure  that 
only  those  things  in  Western  civilization  which  have 
vitality  in  the  East  will  survive.  Just  so  those  things 
in  the  Eastern  civilizations  which  have  sufficient  vitality 
will  also  certainly  survive.  These  two  sets  of  vital 
elements,  disparate  as  they  have  been  in  their  origin 
and  acute  as  may  be  the  present  conflict  between  them, 
will  coalesce  in  something  vital  for  the  nations  which 
are  to  be.  Moreover,  it  is  certain  that  vital  elements 
in  the  Eastern  civilizations,  cultures,  and  faiths  will 
influence  the  West  far  more  profoundly  in  the  twentieth 
century  than  they  have  done  in  the  nineteenth. 

64.  Appropriation  of  certain  outward  factors. — Grant- 
ing this  principle  of  assimilation,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  certain  elements  of  European  civilization  are 
apparently  more  easy  for  non-European  races  to  take 
over  in  their  entirety  than  are  certain  others.  To  put 
it  differently,  certain  elements  of  European  civilization 
practically  unaltered  do  displace  corresponding  elements 
in  Asiatic  and  African  civilizations.  Certain  others 
never  make  headway  until  they  have  been  profoundly 
altered  by  the  play  upon  them  of  the  genius  of  the 
race  concerned.  Manufacturing,  mining,  and  industrial 
processes,  which  involve  the  application  of  the  physical 
sciences  developed  until  recently  only  in  the  West, 
are  reproduced  in  Japan  and  will  be  reproduced  in 
China  practically  without  alteration.  Western  medi- 
cine has  completely  taken  the  place  of  what  passed 
for  medical  practice  among  the  Japanese  two  genera- 
tions ago.  In  certain  outward  things  life  in  the  East 
will  some  day  not  merely  resemble  life  in  the  West,  it 


58  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

will  be  identical  with  life  in  the  West.     The  railways 
and  factory  chimneys  in  Hankow  or  Osaka  or  Milan  or 
Manchester  or  Chicago  remind  us  of  this  fact  every  day. 
65.  Naturalization  of  the  deeper  and  more  permanent 
elements. — The  moment  one  passes,  however,  into  the 
sphere  of  inner  freedom,  of  government,  of  education 
in  its  larger  human  aspects,  of  social  life  and  morals, 
and  most  of  all  of  religion,  the  case  is  different.     Here, 
in  what  we  may  call  the  spiritual  area,  the  individual 
reaction  is  immeasurably  greater.     Characteristic  results 
of  freedom  everywhere  manifest  themselves.     Industrial 
life  may  be  the  same  or  nearly  so  the  world  over.     Social 
life,  art,  poetry  will  never  lose  the  traces  of  their  past. 
It  would  be   deplorable  if   they   should   do   so.     The 
moral  and  religious  life  of  some  of  these  peoples  is  an 
area  within  which  they  have  made  vast  achievements 
in  time  past,   achievements  before  which  we  of  the 
West  must  stand  in  awe  and  reverence.     The  results 
of  these  ages  of  moral  and  spiritual  conflict,  feeling, 
thought,  will  never  be  entirely  lost.     We  ought  to  give 
thanks  that  this  is  so.     Elements  of  the  Western  man's 
social  life  and  moral  system  and  religious  aspiration 
may  well  pass  into  the  life  of  the  East  through  free 
adoption  of  them  on  the  part  of  individuals  and  groups  of 
Eastern  men.     They  will  never  thus  pass  without  being 
altered  by  the  free  play  of  the  life  and  character  of  the 
race  concerned.     Doctrines  will  never  find  expression 
native  to  these  peoples  except  against  the  background  of 
their  ancestral  cultivation.    The  interpretation  of  religion 
and  of  Christianity  itself,  in  so  far  as  these  peoples  adopt 
Christianity,  will  be  the  richer  and  more  wonderful  by 
the  racial  contributions  which  these  peoples  make. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  AMERICA 
AND  RUSSIAN  ASIA 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  AMERICA  AND 

RUSSIAN  ASIA 

66.  Present  situation  as  to  colonial  empires 

67.  The  spread  of  the  spirit  of  Europe  in  the  autonomous  nations 
of  the  East 

68.  A  third  sense  of  the  expansion  of  Europe  as  illustrated  in 
North  America  and  Australia 

69.  Latin  America 

70.  Religious  history  in  the  Americas 

71.  The  Protestant  sects 

72.  Asiatic  Russia 

73.  Religious  history  of  modern  Russia 

74.  Freedom  in  Russia 

75.  Russian  conquests  in  Asia 

76.  Russian  settlements  and  missions  in  Asia 

77.  Missions  of  the  Holy  Orthodox  church  outside  of  Russia 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  AMERICA  AND 

RUSSIAN  ASIA 

66.  Present  situation  as  to  colonial  empires. — We  have 
used  the  phrase  " expansion  of  Europe"  in  the  sense  of 
the  great  empires  of  conquest  and  trade,  the  establish- 
ment of  which  became  the  object  of  the  ambition  of 
European  powers  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  older  of  these  colonial  empires  have 
practically  vanished,  not  without  leaving  their  mark 
upon  the  trade  and  civilization  of  the  world.  Great 
Britain  continues  in  possession  of  an  empire  which  at 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Victoria  contained  one-fourth  of 
the  habitable  land  of  the  globe  and  one-fifth  of  the  human 
race.  France  has  in  part  recouped  itself  for  territorial 
losses  through  the  partitionment  of  Africa  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Italy  and  Belgium 
and  Germany,  which  earlier  had  no  part  in  this  colonial 
development,  held  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  large 
possessions  in  Africa. 

67.  The  spread  of  the  spirit  of  Europe  in  the  auton- 
omous nations  of  the  East. — We  have  seen,  however,  that 
the  phrase  " expansion  of  Europe"  may  be  used  in  quite 
a  different  sense  from  that  of  colonial  possessions  under 
governmental  sway.  It  may  describe  a  state  of  things 
like  that  in  Japan  where  certain  elements  of  European 
civilization  have  been  freely  taken  over  with  varied 
motives  by  great  nations  of  the  East.  In  these  cases  the 
phrase  denotes  the  adoption  and  adaptation  by  Asiatic 

61 


62  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  other  races  of  European  ideas  and  institutions  which 
have  taken  place  without  the  establishment  of  an  outward 
sway  of  European  states.  It  is  a  change  of  the  mind  of 
peoples,  some  of  them  peoples  with  a  great  history  and 
a  highly  developed  civilization  of  their  own,  which  yet 
in  governmental  and  industrial  and  educational  matters 
have  been  profoundly  influenced  by  the  spirit  of  a 
civilization  which  had  its  origin  and  its  slow  evolution 
entirely  in  Western  Europe  and  America. 

68.  A  third  sense  of  the  expansion  of  Europe  as  illus- 
trated in  North  America  and  Australia. — We  have  now 
to  note  that  the  phrase  "expansion  of  Europe"  may  be 
used  with  still  a  third  meaning.  Of  this  third  significance 
of  the  phrase,  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  almost  all  of 
South  America,  and  the  whole  of  North  America  may  be 
taken  as  representative.  The  United  States  constitutes 
the  typical  example.  Here  European  states  did  at  first 
establish  actual  sovereignty.  These  sovereignties  were, 
however,  established  in  vast  regions  of  sparse  population 
and  of  no  highly  developed  civilization.  The  aboriginal 
population  has  almost  disappeared.  There  has  been 
no  influence  of  an  American  Indian  civilization  upon  the 
civilization  of  the  people  who  now  inhabit  the  United 
States.  There  is  but  one  great  factor  in  the  population 
of  the  United  States  which  is  not  of  European  descent. 
This  is  made  up  of  the  descendants  of  African  slaves. 
They  also  had  no  civilization  of  their  own  the  elements 
of  which  could  enter  into  composition  with  that  of  the 
Europeans  who  ruthlessly  brought  them  to  these  shores. 
In  the  major  aspects  of  its  civilization  therefore  this 
great  area  which  has  now  arrived  at  primary  significance 
in  the  history  of  the  world  is  but  a  portion  of  Europe 


EUROPE  IN  AMERICA  AND  RUSSIAN  ASIA       63 

transferred  bodily  to  the  Western  Hemisphere.  This 
situation  is  not  altered  by  the  fact  that  the  territory  in 
question  long  ago  severed  its  political  connection  with 
Europe  and  established  itself  as  an  independent  nation. 
It  belongs  to  the  area  from  which  direct  and  powerful 
influences  for  the  Europeanizing  of  the  world  go  out. 

69.  Latin  America. — Mexico  and  almost  all  the  states 
of  Central  and  South  America  have  also  thrown  off  their 
allegiance  to  the  European  powers,  of  which  they  were 
originally  colonies.  The  remnant  of  the  aboriginal 
populations  is  relatively  larger  than  in  the  case  of  Canada 
or  of  the  United  States.  There  has  been  more  of  admix- 
ture of  Caucasian  blood  with  these  aboriginal  elements. 
The  South  American  states  and  the  islands  have  also  a 
large  African  population.  The  civilization  of  Mexico 
and  Peru  seems  to  have  been  considerably  higher  than 
that  which  was  anywhere  found  in  the  north  of  North 
America.  It  has  left  but  little  trace  behind.  The 
European  impulses  which  these  southern  peoples  received 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  were  then 
for  a  long  time  broken  off.  Spain  and  Portugal  were 
declining.  Mexico  has  many  characteristics  of  the 
Spain  of  the  sixteenth  century  rather  than  those  of 
the  Spain  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Australia  has 
the  characteristics  of  the  British  Isles  of  the  present 
moment.  The  United  States,  with  its  unexampled 
admixture  of  European  populations  as  it  is  today,  has 
had  a  development  all  its  own  and  in  the  full  tide  of  the 
development  of  the  modern  world. 

70.  Religious  history  in  the  Americas. — Religiously 
also  the  Americas  and  Australia  are  but  a  Europe  over- 
seas.    But  little  trace  is  left  of  the  religions  of  the  North 


64  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

or  South  American  Indian  tribes.  There  has  been  no 
composition  and  fusion  of  Christian  with  other  elements, 
such  as  we  have  seen  in  the  lands  of  the  East.  Heroism 
in  missionary  endeavor  on  the  part  of  French  Jesuits  on 
behalf  of  the  North  American  Indians  and  again  on  that 
of  the  Spanish  Franciscans  in  the  interest  of  populations 
of  the  Southwest  and  of  the  Pacific  Coast  was  not  lacking. 
These  populations  have,  however,  almost  disappeared 
from  the  earth.  The  Christians  helped  them  to  dis- 
appear in  a  measure  not  creditable  to  their  Christianity. 
In  the  religion  of  the  negro  population  there  are  psycho- 
logical traits  easily  recognizable  as  traits  of  African 
paganism.  Yet  the  mythology  and  religious  folklore 
of  these  children  of  Africa  in  America  has  curiously  little 
reminiscence  of  anything  which  is  African.  It  is  Chris- 
tian or  Jewish  in  form.  Its  most  pathetic  trait  is  its 
recurrence  to  the  idea  of  the  deliverance  of  Israel. 
In  the  large  the  Christianity  of  these  continents  is 
therefore  the  Christianity  of  Europeans  themselves, 
developed  indeed  in  a  new  environment  and  under  new 
conditions  but  under  impulses  and  with  diversifications 
which  almost  all  had  their  origin  in  the  history  of  the 
church  in  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  original  Christianity  of  the  United 
States  was  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  south  and 
again  in  the  far  north.  It  was  Protestantism  almost 
exclusively  in  the  middle  area. 

7 1 .  The  Protestant  sects. — Protestant  sects  are  numer- 
ous in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Most  of  them 
trace  their  origin  to  the  fact  that  these  regions  were 
settled  at  a  time  when  in  Europe  and  especially  in 
England  after  the  Civil  War  the  tendency  to  sectarian 


EUROPE  IN  AMERICA  AND  RUSSIAN  ASIA       65 

division  and  denominational  disruption  was  at  its  height. 
In  many  instances  sectaries  left  their  own  countries  of 
purpose  that  they  might  have  a  free  field  for  the  expres- 
sion of  their  own  religious  peculiarities.  In  the  United 
States  and  Canada  these  denominations  have,  during 
the  nineteenth  century,  taken  upon  themselves  respon- 
sibility for  participation  in  the  Christian  missionary 
activity  of  the  world.  Undoubtedly  they  have  increased 
the  perplexity  of  converts  to  the  Christian  faith  in  Asia 
and  Africa  when  they  have  been  too  insistent  as  to 
idiosyncrasies  which  can  never  have  any  meaning  for 
the  Asiatic  and  are  rapidly  ceasing  to  have  any  for 
the  American.  Perhaps  the  development  of  Christian 
thought  and  institutions  in  the  missions  will  help  to  do 
away  with  these  petty  divisions  which  have  long  been 
the  bane  of  occidental  Protestantism. 

72.  Asiatic  Russia. — Allusion  has  been  made  to 
Russia  as  having  extended  within  our  period  the  influence 
of  Europe  throughout  the  whole  northern  part  of  the 
continent  of  Asia  somewhat  as  England  and  other  Euro- 
pean states  have  spread  that  influence  in  the  southern 
portion  of  that  continent.  There  are,  however,  great 
and  characteristic  differences.  The  Russian  Empire  is  a 
continuous  land  empire.  Sea-borne  commerce  has  had 
practically  no  part  in  its  development.  Until  the  rail- 
ways the  old  caravan  routes  were  the  only  arteries  of 
traffic.  Russia  has  not  been,  in  the  modern  sense,  an 
industrial  or  commercial  state.  The  passion  for  enlarge- 
ment of  territory  even  in  regions  where  agriculture  and 
mining  values  were  not  as  yet  much  thought  of  was  at 
the  first  the  main  motive.  As  the  Tatars  pressed  upon 
Russia  until  the  victory  of  the  Don,  as  the  Russians 


66  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

once  paid  tribute  to  the  Khan  in  the  valley  of  the  Amur, 
so  the  Russians  in  turn  have  pressed  eastward  upon  the 
Tatars  until  the  chieftains  of  the  Amur  paid  tribute  in 
Kiev  and  Moscow  and  Petrograd. 

73.  Religious  history  of  modern  Russia. — Russia  had 
no  part  in  many  of  the  movements  which  went  to  make 
the  modern  European  states.  She  had  no  part  in  the 
Crusades.  Yet  in  the  five  hundred  years  of  struggle 
against  the  Tatars  she  may  be  said  to  have  had  a  crusade 
of  her  own.  Russia  had  no  part  in  the  Renaissance. 
Yet  through  her  unbroken  connection  with  Constan- 
tinople it  is  doubtful  whether  in  the  period  before  the 
Renaissance  the  culture  of  Little  Russia  and  Poland  was 
not  at  a  higher  level  than  that  of  large  parts  of  Western 
Europe.  Russia  had  no  experience  parallel  to  that  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation.  The  establishment  of  the 
patriarchate  of  Moscow  was  rather  the  emergence  in 
Russia  of  a  power  like  that  of  the  pope  which  Western 
Europe  at  that  very  time  was  seeking  to  break.  The 
breath  of  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  reformation  which 
touched  Cyril  Lucar,  the  illustrious  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  made  him  the  correspondent  of  Anglican 
churchmen  in  the  seventeenth  century  never  touched 
Russia.  The  Reformation  movement  once  so  significant 
in  Poland  was  crushed  by  the  Roman  church. 

74.  Freedom  in  Russia. — There  was  no  democratic 
and  individualist  movement  in  Russia  like  that  which  in 
England  and  more  slowly  in  France  followed  upon  the 
period  of  the  Reformation.  Russia  failed  to  receive 
that  quickening  which  the  rationalist  movement  every- 
where gave  to  all  phases  of  the  life  of  Western  Europe. 
The  individualism  of  much  of  the  present-day  movement 


EUROPE  IN  AMERICA  AND  RUSSIAN  ASIA       67 

in  Russia  may  be  ascribed  to  the  tyrannical  postpone- 
ment of  the  slow  and  beneficent  effects  of  a  normal 
national  awakening  just  as  the  excesses  of  the  French 
Revolution  may  be  credited  to  the  repression  practiced 
by  the  Bourbon  state  and  the  Gallican  church.  In  the 
Russian  revolution  the  church  seems  to  have  gone  by  the 
board  as  truly  as  the  state.  That  happened  in  France 
also  after  1789. 

75.  Russian  conquests  in  Asia. — It  was  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  who  reigned  from  1533  to  1584,  who  began  the 
great  advance  of  Russia  into  Asia.  Jarmak,  a  man  from 
beyond  the  Urals,  was  the  first  great  conqueror.  By  his 
so-called  gift  of  Siberia  to  the  crown  he  purchased  his 
restoration  to  the  favor  of  Ivan  in  1583.  Within  eighty 
years  the  Russians  had  reached  the  Amur  River  and  the 
Pacific  Coast.  At  the  end  of  a  hundred  years  they  had 
penetrated  deep  into  North  America.  The  conquest 
of  the  Caucasus  regions,  partly  from  Persia  and  partly 
from  the  Porte,  was  one  of  the  great  objects  of  the  reign 
of  Nicholas  I.  The  reign  of  his  successor,  Alexander  II, 
who  died  in  1881,  brought  to  Russia  indeed  doubtful 
success  in  the  war  with  Turkey,  but  it  also  witnessed 
vast  expansion  of  Russian  territory  in  Central  Asia. 
It  gave  to  the  Czar  the  whole  area  lying  between  Siberia 
on  the  north  and  Persia  and  Afghanistan  on  the  south 
and  stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  Chinese  territory. 
The  question  of  the  relation  of  Siberia  to  the  civil  and 
social  salvation  of  Russia  emerges  in  unexpected  fashion 
in  the  later  stages  of  the  Great  War. 

76.  Russian  settlements  and  missions  in  Asia. — The 
settlement  of  the  conquered  country  has  been  slow.  The 
population  is  still  sparse.     Cossack  troops  were  sent  tp 


68  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

follow  up  the  invasions.  Imperial  guards  were  located 
in  the  main  towns.  Peasants  fled  from  Russia  to  escape 
serfdom  or  conscription.  Again,  peasants  have  been 
settled  on  the  land  by  the  government,  and  sectaries  of 
every  sort  have  fled  from  Russia  to  escape  religious 
persecution.  Political  exiles  were  once  very  numerous 
in  certain  regions.  Everywhere  the  Russian  church  has 
followed  with  more  or  less  success  this  essentially  Russian 
population.  Everywhere  it  has  attempted  mission  work 
among  the  non-Christian  populations.  In  considerable 
parts  of  Siberia  the  primitive  paganism  is  disappearing. 
Russian  priests  were  closely  associated  with  the  govern- 
ment in  administration  of  the  Asiatic  provinces.  No 
great  influence  has  been  exerted  by  the  church  through- 
out the  Asiatic  domain  in  the  direction  of  education  or 
social  reform. 

77.  Missions  of  the  Holy  Orthodox  church  outside  of 
Russia. — The  Russian  church  has  three  foreign  mission- 
ary endeavors  of  not  inconsiderable  significance.  Its 
oldest  field  is  that  in  China.  Missions  were  established 
at  Peking  in  17 14  in  face  of  strong  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  There 
is  a  very  successful  mission  of  the  Russian  church  in 
Japan,  established  in  1863  by  the  Archimandrite  Nicolai, 
only  recently  dead.  It  is  said  to  have  some  thirty 
thousand  Japanese  adherents.  Thirdly,  there  is  an 
extensive  missionary  work  of  the  Russian  church  among 
Indians  and  Eskimos  in  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian 
Islands  dating  from  the  time  when  this  territory  belonged 
to  Russia. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  OPENING  OF  AFRICA 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  OPENING  OF  AFRICA 

78.  Early  trade  and  slavery 

79.  Portuguese  Africa 

80.  Dutch  Africa 

81.  Missionaries  and  explorers 

82.  Partitionment  of  Africa  since  1879 

83.  Africa  and  alien  civilization 

84.  The  struggle  against  slavery  and  the  slave  trade 

85.  Industrial  conditions  in  South  Africa 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  OPENING  OF  AFRICA 

78.  Early  trade  and  slavery. — Africa  was  the  first 
of  the  continents  with  which  Europeans  came  in  con- 
tact when,  in  the  age  of  the  Renaissance,  the  movement 
of  European  expansion  began.  It  is  the  last  of  the 
continents  upon  which  the  partitionment  of  large  parts 
of  its  territory  among  European  powers  has  been  at- 
tempted. For  centuries  trade  was  carried  on  by  Euro- 
peans upon  the  coast  before  serious  effort  was  made 
even  to  explore  the  interior.  Christian  missionary 
endeavors,  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  though 
early  inaugurated,  have  not  yet  passed  much  beyond 
the  primitive  stages  appropriate  to  a  people  of  but 
little  developed  civilization.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
great  and  successful  propaganda  in  the  name  of  Islam 
has  been  carried  on  in  Africa  for  more  than  a  generation. 
The  black  race  shows  nowhere  marked  tendency  to 
diminish  in  numbers  or  vitality  before  the  advance  of 
white  men  as  did  the  Indians  of  North  America  and  the 
islanders  of  the  South  Seas.  This  is  true  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that,  great  as  were  the  injustices  practiced  by 
settlers  toward  the  Indians,  these  never  for  a  moment 
bore  comparison  with  the  atrocities  of  the  slave  trade. 

79.  Portuguese  Africa. — Portuguese  adventurers  pat- 
ronized by  Henry  the  Navigator  doubled  Cape  Bojardo 
in  1434.  By  1480  the  whole  of  the  Guinea  coast  was 
known.  Items  of  commerce  mentioned  were  slaves, 
ivory,    and    gold.     The    discovery    of    America    after 

71 


72  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

1492  stimulated  the  slave  trade,  which  before  that  time 
had  been  largely  an  overland  traffic  and  confined  to 
Mohammedan  Africa.  The  supremacy  of  the  Guinea 
coast  passed  from  Portugal  to  Holland  in  the  seventeenth 
and  to  England  and  France  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries.  The  Portuguese  long  held  most  of 
the  east  coast  south  of  Cape  Gardafui,  with  Mozambique 
as  their  center.  They  knew  of  gold  mines  in  the  interior 
in  what  is  now  Rhodesia,  but  their  attempt  to  establish 
a  hold  over  these  regions  was  never  effective. 

80.  Dutch  Africa. — The  Dutch  made  permanent 
settlement  at  Table  Bay  in  1652.  To  this  Dutch 
colony  at  the  Cape  went  many  French  Protestants. 
They  were  absorbed  into  the  life  of  the  Dutch  colonies 
which  were  later  to  become  the  Boer  republics  and  have 
but  recently  passed  into  the  hands  of  Great  Britain. 
The  eighteenth  century  saw  almost  no  progress  in  the 
penetration  of  the  interior  of  the  continent.  The  slave 
trade  from  the  two  coasts  dwarfed  everything  else.  In 
this  trade  the  seaboard  colonies  of  North  America  came 
to  take  a  large  part. 

81.  Missionaries  and  explorers. — The  Napoleonic 
era  distracted  European  attention  from  Africa.  Yet 
the  temporary  possession  of  Egypt,  first  by  France  and 
then  by  England,  may  have  suggested  the  establishment 
in  181 1  under  Mohammed  Ali  of  a  regime  almost  inde- 
pendent of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Also  in  1832  the 
Arabs  began  to  penetrate  the  interior  from  Zanzibar. 
There  had  been  Roman  Catholic  missions  at  various 
places  on  the  coast  from  the  beginning.  The  English 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  inaugurated 
its  work  in  1752.     Moravians  followed  in  1792.     Prot- 


THE  OPENING  OF  AFRICA  73 

estant  missionaries,  like  Rebmann  and  Krapf ,  who  were 
German  Pietists  under  English  auspices,  became 
explorers  and  discoverers  and  agitators  for  the  abolition 
of  the  slave  trade.  The  typical  person  in  this  group 
is,  above  all,  Livingstone,  who,  in  the  period  from  1849 
to  1873,  crossed  Africa  from  ocean  to  ocean  three  times. 
He  spent  his  life  in  the  struggle  against  the  slave  trade, 
in  the  endeavor  to  heal  what  he  called  "the  open  sore 
of  the  world. "  Burton  and  Speke,  Baker  and  Cameron, 
Schweinfurth  and  Stanley,  with  their  compeers,  had  by 
1875  made  Africa  to  be  no  longer  the  Dark  Continent, 
the  mystery  which  it  had  remained  since  the  world 
began. 

82.  Partitionment  of  Africa  since  187 g. — Before 
1875  the  only  powers  with  considerable  territorial 
interests  in  Africa  were  the  Portuguese,  the  British, 
and  the  French.  After  1854  even  the  British  took  but 
languid  interest  in  African  affairs.  The  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  in  1869  changed  the  face  of  matters.  Yet 
even  in  1879  not  a  tenth  of  the  area  of  the  continent  was 
claimed  by  European  powers.  Then  in  1884  came  the 
effort  upon  the  part  of  the  Germans,  beginning  with 
Togo  and  Kamerun,  to  express  in  world-relations  the 
greatness  of  the  German  Empire  united  since  1870. 
France  also  in  the  same  period  undertook  to  make  good 
the  loss  of  the  glorious  empire  in  America  which  she  had 
sacrificed  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  British  were 
virtually  in  possession  of  Egypt  with  the  guardianship 
of  the  Canal  after  1882.  They  extended  their  territory 
southward  into  the  Sudan  and  reached  the  sea  at 
Mombasa.  When  after  the  Boer  War  the  old  Dutch 
republics  had  fallen  into  English  hands,  nothing  but  the 


74  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

territory  of  German  East  Africa  interrupted  a  continuous 
British  sovereignty  from  Cairo  to  the  Cape.  Similarly 
nothing  save  the  British  possession  of  the  Egyptian 
Sudan  prevented  the  French  from  holding  a  continuous 
empire  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Belgium 
also  entered  the  struggle  of  European  powers  for  African 
possessions,  obtaining  in  1885  a  protectorate  over  the 
so-called  Congo  Free  State,  which  became  a  Belgian 
colony  in  1908.  Germany  presently  added  to  her  pos- 
sessions a  great  area  on  the  west  coast  north  of  Cape 
Colony.  Italy,  after  an  abortive  effort  in  Abyssinia, 
obtained  the  Eritrean  coast  on  the  Red  Sea.  Within 
the  last  few  years  she  has  appropriated  also  a  large  part 
of  Tripoli.  The  portions  of  Africa  which  still  own 
allegiance  to  the  Porte  are  by  this  time  very  small. 
Those  portions  which  by  any  stretch  of  language  could 
be  described  as  autonomous  African  states  are  smaller 

still. 

83.  Africa  and  alien  civilization. — It  is  true  that  the 
development  of  Africa  has  waited  apparently  through 
all  the  ages  for  the  impact  of  the  civilization  of  Europe. 
It  is  true  that  the  black  races,  the  immemorial  inhabi- 
tants of  by  far  the  larger  part  of  this  continent,  have 
never  developed  any  high  civilization  among  themselves 
or  made  appreciable  advance,  save  when  in  contact 
with  other  races.  It  is  also  true  that  no  continent 
has  ever  suffered  such  monstrous  wrongs  in  its  contacts 
with  the  civilizations  of  Asia,  Europe,  and  America. 
Slavery  has  been  known  in  the  history  of  many  races. 
No  one  race  has  been  singled  out  as  everybody's  slave 
as  has  the  colored  race.  There  is  something  profoundly 
disturbing  in  the  opening  decades  of  the  twentieth  cen- 


THE  OPENING  OF  AFRICA  75 

tury  of  Christianity  in  the  spectacle  of  the  struggle  of 
European  nations  for  the  possession  each  of  its  own  part 
of  this  magnificent  continent,  with  the  least  possible 
recognition  that  the  races  who  have  lived  in  it  since  the 
world  began  have  rights  to  independent  development 
which  anyone  is  bound  to  respect. 

84.  The  struggle  against  slavery  and  the  slave  trade. 
— Great  Britain  abolished  slavery  in  the  empire  in  1833. 
The  slave  trade  had  been  abolished  in  1806.  Certain 
northern  states  of  the  United  States,  one  after  another, 
abolished  slavery  before  1806,  but  in  the  United  States 
as  a  whole  the  end  came  only  as  the  result  of  a  bitter 
civil  war,  in  1863.  The  British  took  up  the  war  upon  the 
African  and  Arab  slave  raiders  in  Africa  in  1882.  The 
partitionment  of  Africa  had  hardly  begun.  The  slave 
trade  from  the  Congo  country  to  the  east  coast  was 
at  its  very  worst.  The  struggle  lasted  until  1909. 
Its  most  picturesque  figure  was  surely  Chinese  Gordon 
who  lost  his  life  at  Khartoum  in  1884.  Neither  slavery 
nor  the  slave  trade  is  yet  stamped  out  in  Africa.  They 
are  certainly  reduced  far  beyond  the  measure  which 
anyone  of  Gordon's  generation  would  have  dared  to 
hope. 

85.  Industrial  conditions  in  South  Africa. — Mean- 
time the  development  of  trade,  particularly  of  mining, 
in  British  South  Africa  since  the  Boer  War,  with  the 
building  of  railways  and  the  navigation  of  the  great 
lakes  and  rivers,  has  set  up  a  movement  among  the 
African  tribes  themselves  which  bids  fair  now  swiftly 
to  alter  conditions  which  have  existed  since  before  the 
dawn  of  history.  The  isolation  of  local  tribes,  their 
permanence  upon  the  spot  of  soil  with  which  they  have 


76  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

always  been  identified,  is  ceasing  or  has  ceased.  The 
tribal  dialects,  the  whole  social  system,  patriarchal  or 
of  whatever  sort  it  was,  are  giving  way  before  this 
migration.  A  hundred  or  more  languages  and  dialects 
are  spoken  daily  in  Johannesburg.  Laborers  who  until 
yesterday  lived  exactly  as  their  ancestors  lived  ever 
since  the  Pharaohs  now  live  in  the  suburbs  of  Johannes- 
burg much  as  laborers  live  in  a  mining  camp  in  Colorado, 
on  the  Yukon,  or  in  Siberia.  The  problem  of  main- 
taining government  over  this  population  is  sufficiently 
difficult.  The  problem  of  their  education  and  of  the 
maintenance  of  moral  distinctions  and  religious  values 
among  them  is  greater  still. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MISSIONARY  THEORY  AND  INSTRUMEN- 
TALITIES 


CHAPTER  VI 

MISSIONARY  THEORY  AND  INSTRUMENTALITIES 

86.  Effect  on  indigenous  faiths 

87.  Transformation  of  these  faiths 

88.  All  classes  feel  the  strain 

89.  Religious  unrest  in  the  Orient 

90.  Abortive  results  of  the  movement 

91.  Other  considerations 

92.  Changed  view  concerning  missions 

93.  Absolute  religion  and  revelation 

94.  Comparative  study  of  religions 

95.  Studies  in  the  history  of  Christianity 

96.  Religion  of  the  spirit 

97.  Religion  of  soul  salvation 

98.  Social  salvation 

99.  The  spirit  of  progress 

100.  The  abiding  need 

1 01.  Origins  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 

102.  Francis  Xavier 

103.  The  Congregation  "de  Propaganda  Fide" 

104.  Organizations  of  the  Established  Church  of  England 

105.  Other  British  societies 

106.  German  Pietists 

107.  The  Moravians;  other  Continental  societies 

108.  American  societies 

109.  Women's  boards 

no.  Origin  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
in.  Work  of  the  Association 

112.  Origin  of  the  Bible  societies 

113.  The  work  of  the  Bible  societies 


CHAPTER  VI 

MISSIONARY  THEORY  AND  INSTRUMENTALITIES 

86.  Effect  on  indigenous  faiths. — In  many  of  the  non- 
European  countries  which  come  within  our  view,  the 
change  in  ideals  of  life,  the  relaxation  of  old  authority 
has  had,  temporarily  at  least,  injurious  effect  upon  the 
social  and  moral  life  of  whole  strata  of  the  population. 
Not  merely  foreigners  who  have  the  interest  of  these 
nations  at  heart,  but  representatives  of  the  peoples 
themselves  view  this  situation  with  grave  concern. 
They  feel  that  unless  the  old  faiths  which  once  func- 
tioned serviceably  can  be  revived  or  unless  other 
sanctions  can  be  found,  the  last  end  of  the  boasted  prog- 
ress of  their  countries  will  be  worse  than  the  first. 
These  facts  explain  the  efforts  at  the  reform  of  Hinduism 
which  have  been  made  by  enlightened  spirits  in  India 
within  the  last  two  generations.  This  anxiety  besets 
many  high-minded  men  in  Japan.  It  animates  both 
their  effort  at  the  revival  of  the  ancient  faiths  and  also 
their  attitude  of  open-mindedness  toward  the  foreign 
faith  to  which  they  were  formerly  hostile.  That  the 
hope  of  many  of  these  men  takes  the  form  of  an  adequate 
restatement  and  readjustment  of  their  own  ancestral 
faiths  to  the  new  conditions  of  their  nation's  life  is 
altogether  natural.  Whether  these  ancient  faiths  can 
ever  really  achieve  so  radical  a  transformation  of  them- 
selves, whether  they  can  ever  become  again  in  their 
vastly  altered  environment  the  sources  of  spiritual 
insight  and  of  moral  corroboration  which  they  were 

7Q 


80  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

under  the  earlier  conditions,  is  a  question  which  only 
time  and  the  adherents  of  these  faiths  can  answer. 
Western  civilization  in  some  measure  all  these  nations 
are  determined  to  have.  In  considerable  measure  they 
already  have  it.  What  will  be  its  effect  upon  Eastern 
religions  ? 

87.  Transformation  of  these  faiths. — In  some  sense 
these  changes  which  have  become  imperative  for  oriental 
faiths  are  parallel  to  those  through  which  Christianity 
itself  has  passed  in  Europe  and  America  within  the 
nineteenth  century.  Many  of  the  same  problems  which 
we  have  met,  Buddhism  in  Japan  and  Hinduism  in 
India  must  now  meet,  only  in  these  latter  cases  the 
adjustment  to  modern  conditions  seems  more  difficult. 
The  gulf  fixed  between  these  faiths  and  the  modern  mind 
and  life  seems  to  us  greater  than  it  can  possibly  be  in 
the  case  even  of  those  Christians  who  offer  stoutest 
resistance  to  all  new  interpretations.  Yet  even  in 
Christendom  only  too  many  men  are  left  practically 
indifferent  to  religion  because  they  have  never  conceived 
of  it  except  in  terms  which  they  are  unable  in  intellec- 
tual integrity  to  accept.  It  is  no  wonder  if  certain 
Japanese  and  Hindus  are  becoming  non-religious, 
if  not  actually  irreligious,  because  they  cannot  state 
their  Buddhism  or  Hinduism  in  terms  which  they  as 
scientifically  trained  modern  men  can  honestly  accept. 

88.  All  classes  feel  the  strain. — Nor  should  it  be 
implied  that  the  effect  we  seek  to  describe  is  limited  to 
the  educated  classes.  On  the  contrary,  just  as  in 
Christendom,  this  influence  is  felt  in  strata  of  the 
population  which  themselves  have  little  or  no  modern 
training.    To  them,  nevertheless,  the  attitude  of  mind 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  81 

of  others  has  spread  in  that  marvelous  contagion  of 
opinion  which  everywhere  exists  in  the  modern  world. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  forgotten  that  some  of  those  who  have  been 
most  zealous  in  the  cause  of  Christian  missions  have  in 
times  past  appeared  not  to  feel  in  its  full  force  that  neces- 
sity of  restatement  and  adjustment  of  Christianity  to 
modern  conditions  which  was  implied  above.  Some  of 
them  have  thought  of  the  doctrinal  and  ritual  forms  of 
their  own  faith  as  unchangeable.  They  have  expected 
nothing  of  their  converts  but  that  these  should  give  up 
absolutely  their  inherited  faith  and  take  over  the  faith 
and  life  of  one  of  our  Western  sects  in  its  entirety.  The 
beauty  of  the  Christian  character  of  some  who  have 
conscientiously  held  this  mistaken  view,  their  exemplary 
life  with  the  treasures  of  their  love  and  self-sacrifice, 
have  won  and  held  converts  to  the  more  thoughtful  of 
whom  their  theoretical  views  must  have  been  difficult 
in  the  extreme. 

89.  Religious  unrest  in  the  Orient. — The  whole  reli- 
gious and  moral  life  of  the  Orient  is  seething  with  unrest, 
just  as  is  also  that  of  the  Occident.  It  sometimes  seems 
as  if  we  had  succeeded  mainly  in  imparting  to  the 
East  our  own  unrest,  an  unrest  of  which  it  is  gratui- 
tously assumed  that  the  Orient  knew  nothing  until 
the  Western  man  appeared.  Certain  it  is  that  there 
will  be  no  solution  of  the  problems  which  this  unrest 
creates,  either  in  the  East  or  in  the  West,  save  upon  the 
basis  of  the  discovery  of  the  relation  which  our  complex 
and  ever-changing  modern  life  bears  to  the  eternal  facts 
and  truths  of  morals,  of  idealism,  and  of  religion.  In 
this  quest  upon  which  we  are  now  launched,  in  this 
struggle  to  which  the  whole  race  is  committed,  in  this 


82  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

profound  dissatisfaction  which  we  all  feel,  and  to  the 
faith  which  in  our  most  trying  moments  we  all  cherish, 
it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  oriental  races  have  their 
own  grand  contribution  to  make. 

90.  Abortive  results  of  the  movement. — It  would  not 
be  strange  if  some  among  us,  profoundly  impressed 
with  the  weaknesses  and  unworthinesses  of  the  life  of 
our  Western  World,  had  moments  of  regretting  that  we 
have  thus  drawn  the  whole  human  race  within  the  vortex 
of  our  own  ills.  We  have  infected  them  with  our  own 
vices  as  if  they  had  not  already  enough  of  their  own.  We 
have  set  them  only  too  vivid  an  example  of  our  crimes. 
We  have  given  them  our  intellectual  doubts.  We 
have  conferred  upon  them  our  own  economic  and  social 
fallacies.  We  have  brought  to  them  the  contribution 
of  our  diseased  and  deadly  individualism,  an  individual- 
ism which,  while  it  is  the  root  of  much  that  is  good,  is 
equally  the  root  of  much  that  is  evil  in  our  own  nations. 
This  individualism,  never  more  marked  than  in  certain 
current  phases  of  socialistic  agitation,  is  in  striking  con- 
trast with  the  solidarity,  the  community  sense,  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  individual  to  the  family  and  race,  which 
in  some  form  or  other  almost  every  Eastern  people  shows, 
or  at  least  has  shown  almost  down  to  our  own  day. 

91.  Other  considerations. — It  would  indeed  be  sorrow- 
ful if  in  thus  reflecting  we  could  not  set  over  against 
the  evils  which  we  have  done,  both  wittingly  and  unwit- 
tingly, vast  and  substantial  benefits  as  well.  It  requires 
no  boastfulness,  it  does  not  express  mere  provincial 
complacency,  if  we  say  that  great  benefits  have  been 
conferred  by  the  West  upon  the  East.  The  greatest  of 
all  the  benefits  which  we  have  conferred  have  not  been 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  83 

comforts  and  luxuries.  They  are  not  mere  appliances 
for  getting  on  in  life.  The  greatest  benefits  have  been 
inner  impulses,  stimuli  to  the  mental  and  moral  and 
spiritual  existence  of  those  ancient  races  which  we  hope 
may  help  them  to  live  the  life  which  is  being  forced  upon 
them  as  upon  ourselves  in  the  new  world.  In  truth 
the  moral  and  spiritual  good  which  we  may  yet  hope  to 
do  is  the  only  offset  still  possible  to  the  otherwise  irre- 
mediable harm  which  we  have  already  done.  It  is 
too  late  to  arrest  the  great  movement  of  the  assimilation 
of  the  world  to  Europe  which  we  in  these  pages  are 
endeavoring  to  describe.  It  is  too  late  inanely  to 
mourn  over  it.  For  better  or  for  worse,  or  rather  for 
worse  and  for  better,  it  has  taken  place.  The  Orient, 
Africa,  and  the  Islands  wish  to  have  it  continue  to  take 
place.  We  have  given  so  much  that  it  is  too  late  to 
consider  anything  now  save  royally  giving  the  rest. 
We  have  given  of  our  outward  life.  Those  of  us  who 
have  anything  which  we  understand  to  be  the  inner 
secret  of  our  life  must  give  that  as  well. 

92.  Changed  view  concerning  missions. — Underlying 
all  that  has  been  said  in  these  last  few  paragraphs  is  the 
implication  that  the  Christian  propaganda  has  in  some 
respects  changed  its  point  of  view  within  the  century 
and  a  half  which  we  survey.  This  is  true  and  these 
changed  aspects  of  the  missionary  movement  are  of 
great  significance.  The  changes  are  in  a  measure  parallel 
to  those  which  we  have  already  observed  in  the  secular 
movement.  They  are  coincident  with  changes  in  the 
interpretations  of  Christianity  which  have  taken  place 
in  Europe  and  America  within  the  period  of  which  we 
speak.     The  emphases  in  religion  within  Christendom 


84  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

itself  were  widely  different  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  from  that  which  they  were  at  the  beginning. 
The  main  differences  may  be  summarized  under  two 
heads. 

93.  Absolute  religion  and  revelation. — It  does  not 
admit  of  question  that  the  pioneers  of  the  missionary 
movement  believed  in  the  Christian  religion  as  an 
absolute  religion,  the  one  faith  whereby  men  could  be 
saved.  They  viewed  the  ethnic  religions  as  more  or  less 
completely  erroneous,  creations  of  the  darkened  minds 
and  superstitious  fears  of  men,  or  else  bare  fragments 
of  an  almost  forgotten  revelation  from  God.  One  and 
all  were  evil,  misleading,  and  soul-destroying.  The 
zealots  were  for  the  most  part  not  aware  that  in  thus 
arguing  they  were  departing  from  the  nobler  tradition 
of  the  Christian  apologetic  as  exhibited  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  Origen.  Furthermore,  with  their  alle- 
giance to  the  ecumenical  creeds  and  the  reformation 
symbols  as  embodying  the  gospel  as  this  fell  in  original 
purity  from  Jesus'  lips,  with  their  sense  also  that  their 
own  forms  of  government  or  ritual  were  guaranteed  in 
the  words  of  an  oracular  Scripture,  they  could  not  but 
expect  that  the  church  in  China,  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
or  Africa  would  assume  the  form  which  it  had  had  in 
England  or  New  England  and  would  always  keep  that 
form. 

94.  Comparative  study  of  religions. — The  scientific 
study  of  religions  is  a  development  largely  of  the  last 
generation.  The  philosophy  of  religion  within  that  same 
period  has  undergone  a  revolution.  Students  of  the 
last  twenty  years  have  had  opportunity  to  become 
conversant  with  these  themes.     Points  of  contact  and 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  85 

of  contrast  in  the  great  faiths  of  men  appeal  to  us  in 
a  manner  widely  different  from  that  which  our  fathers 
understood.  Moreover,  experience  in  the  field  now 
affects  the  minds  of  some  devoutest  emissaries  of 
Christianity  in  a  way  which  would  once  have  been 
esteemed  hardly  consonant  with  loyalty.  We  now  feel 
that  the  spiritual  elements  in  an  indigenous  faith  are 
to  be  joyfully  recognized.  Its  ethical  achievements  and 
possibilities  should  be  availed  of.  The  points  which 
unite  us  to  the  men  to  whom  we  preach  should  be  dwelt 
on  before  the  points  dividing  us  should  be  brought  into 
view.  This  all  belongs  to  a  theory  of  missions  which 
seems  to  us  so  axiomatic  that  we  can  hardly  make  real 
to  ourselves  that  it  has  not  always  prevailed. 

95.  Studies  in  the  history  of  Christianity. — Of  even 
greater  significance  perhaps  than  this  growing  apprecia- 
tion of  the  worth  of  other  religions  has  been  an  insight 
which  the  last  half-century  has  brought  us  into  the  na- 
ture of  our  own.  The  view  of  the  nature  and  authority 
of  Scripture  has  been  transformed.  There  has  been  a 
kind  of  contagion  of  the  influence  of  the  historic  spirit 
even  among  those  who  possess  little  or  nothing  of  the 
learning  of  the  historian.  It  appears  axiomatic  to  minds 
of  but  limited  training  that  all  things  have  had  a  develop- 
ment, have  passed  through  stages  of  progress,  have 
unfolded  and  been  but  gradually  revealed.  This 
dynamic  view  of  all  things  in  the  universe,  including  the 
fact  of  religion  and  the  essence  of  Christianity,  is  as 
instinctive  with  the  modern  man  as  was  its  contrary, 
the  static  view  of  these  same  matters,  three  or  even  two 
generations  ago.  Therewith  is  conceded  the  relativity 
of    Christian    doctrines,    institutions,    and    practices. 


86  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Therewith  becomes  obvious  that  these  all  have  had  in 
them,  besides  their  permanent  factor,  an  element  of 
that  which  was  partial,  passing,  adapted  to  the  time 
which  produced  it,  and  giving  place  under  the  exigencies 
of  a  new  time  and  in  the  conditions  of  a  new  environ- 
ment. The  great  revelation  was  personality.  The 
documents  of  revelation  are  nothing  but  the  deposit  of 
some  part  of  the  characteristic  impulse  of  that  person- 
ality, the  reminiscence  of  it,  the  interpretation  of  it, 
with  such  fidelity  as  earnest  men  are  capable  of  and  with 
such  errors  and  idiosyncrasies  as  nothing  human  ever 
quite  escapes.  There  is  no  creed  of  Christendom,  there 
is  no  dogma  or  system  of  theology,  there  is  no  ritual  of 
worship,  there  is  no  rule  of  practice  which  has  not  this 
composite  character,  this  relativity,  this  human  body 
and  parts. 

96.  Religion  of  the  spirit. — The  same  historic  view 
has  re-created  Old  Testament  studies  and  given  us  a 
history  of  the  people  of  Israel  and  of  the  literature  and 
religion  of  Israel,  truly  critical  indeed,  but  full  of  vener- 
ation for  all  that  which  the  ancient  covenant  meant  to 
the  world.  It  is  the  same  view  which  compels  us  to 
see  in  the  dogmatic  and  institutional  and  social  develop- 
ment of  Islam  most  interesting  and  instructive  parallels 
to  corresponding  phases  in  the  evolution  of  Christianity. 
It  is  the  same  view  which  makes  the  investigations  of 
primitive  religion,  in  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  form  any 
clear  picture  of  the  religion  of  primitive  man,  so  impor- 
tant for  the  understanding  of  Christianity  itself.  We 
see  in  certain  aspects  of  current  Christianity  probable 
survivals  of  nature  religions  and  of  the  religions  of  the 
law  which  antedated  the  emergence  of  the  religion  of 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  87 

redemption.  Few  would  any  longer  contend  that  a 
religion  is  to  be  judged  by  its  origins  alone.  Most  would 
assert  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  highest  religions  are 
to  be  estimated  by  their  highest  stages. 

97.  Religion  of  soul-salvation. — Again,  there  has  been 
the  greatest  change  in  the  estimate  of  the  relation  of 
religion  to  the  life  of  the  world.  Those  who  were  at 
first  interested  in  modern  missions  truly  described  them- 
selves as  interested  mainly  in  the  salvation  of  souls.  The 
literature  of  Pietism,  the  records  of  the  Moravians,  the 
sermons  of  Carey,  the  exhortations  of  the  inaugurators 
of  the  American  movement,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  that. 
It  was  not  a  general  program  for  human  amelioration 
which  they  had  in  mind.  It  was  a  ministry  to  the  souls 
of  men  through  the  gospel.  It  was  the  proclamation 
of  the  love  of  God  as  manifested  in  the  atonement 
wrought  by  Jesus  Christ.  It  was  the  proclamation  of 
the  sufficiency  of  these  benefits  if  a  man  had  nothing 
else  in  the  world.  The  missionaries  cannot  be  blamed 
for  declaring  this  to  the  heathen;  they  believed  it  for 
themselves.  And  indeed  upon  "the  heathen  in  his 
blindness"  no  greater  boon  ever  was  conferred  or  ever 
can  be  conferred  than  just  this  inward  transformation 
which  made  him  conscious  victor  over  his  state,  no 
matter  how  dreadful  that  state  might  be.  No  higher 
boon  has  ever  been  conferred  upon  any  man  anywhere 
than  is  this  victory  of  the  spirit.  It  is  the  identical 
boon  which  the  gospel  upon  the  lips  and  in  the  hands  of 
Jesus  conferred.  It  is  the  boon  in  light  of  which  Paul 
cried,  "What  things  were  gain  to  me,  those  I  counted 
loss."  Rationalists  and  radicals  were  alienated  from 
the  church  at  home  and  hostile  to  missions  abroad  on 


SS  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

just  this  ground.  They  held  that  it  was  narrow  and 
exclusive.  They  were  right.  But  it  was  religion.  A 
larger  view  of  the  world  might  modify  it.  The  truest 
view  of  the  world  could  never  take  its  place.  A  world- 
view  is  never  a  substitute  for  religion.  Amelioration 
is  not  redemption. 

98.  Social  salvation. — Meanwhile  a  larger  view  of  the 
world  has  come  to  us.  We  have  come  to  a  juster  judg- 
ment of  the  relation  of  religion  to  the  world.  It  is  one 
of  the  great  achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
this  transformation  in  the  interpretation  of  Christianity. 
The  world  has  become  the  subject  of  redemption.  The 
life  of  the  body,  the  life  of  the  mind,  the  life  which  men 
live  in  their  trades  and  crafts,  in  their  families  and 
states,  in  their  classes  and  masses,  in  their  labor  and 
pleasures,  this  all  has  been  taken  up  into  the  great  en- 
thusiasm of  religion.  The  church  at  home  is  abused  for 
not  having  earlier  realized  its  privilege  and  obligation 
in  these  regards.  A  man  of  insight  may  quite  frankly 
say  that  the  greatest  risk  which  the  cause  of  religion  at 
the  present  moment  runs  is  that  of  coming  to  construe 
itself  in  no  other  terms  than  these.  If  it  was  once  too 
otherworldly,  it  is  clear  that  its  peril  is  now  that  of 
being  too  completely  and  entirely  absorbed  in  aims  which 
begin  and  end  in  this  life  and  world.  We  repeat  that 
the  original  impulse  of  Protestant  missions  was  one  which 
concerned  itself  almost  exclusively  with  the  transcend- 
ent aspects  of  the  life  of  man.  The  pietist  has  always 
stood  thus  over  against  his  world  in  instinctive  opposition 
to  it,  shrinking  from  many  contacts  with  it,  mistrustful 
of  its  powers,  indifferent  to  its  charms,  untouched  by 
many  of  its  motives. 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  89 

99.  The  spirit  of  progress. — We  have  swung  from  one 
extreme  to  the  other.  Christians  have  repented  them 
of  their  otherworldliness,  even  those  who  had  but  little 
of  that  quality  to  be  repented  of.  Those  who  want 
nothing  but  civic  righteousness  and  social  salvation, 
economic  redemption,  commercial  ethics,  the  gospel 
of  hygiene  and  eugenics,  the  divine  ministry  of  comfort 
and  even  of  leisure  and  pleasure  are  much  in  evidence. 
Phrases  like  these  are  the  rallying  cries  of  movements 
within  the  church  and  of  men  without  it  who  would  lay 
down  a  program  for  it.  They  are  the  watchwords  of 
agitation,  the  catchwords  of  popular  appeal.  The 
contention  here  involved  is  partly  valid.  It  is  of 
vast  significance  in  the  new  interpretation  of  religion. 
What  is  new  is  mainly  the  isolation  of  the  contention. 
That  isolation  is  false.  The  contention  may  answer  as 
a  corrective  of  one-sidedness.  It  intimates  enlarged 
scope  in  the  application  of  religion.  As  an  exclusive 
view  of  religion  or  as  a  substitute  for  religion  it  is  ridic- 
ulous, stupid,  and  dangerous. 

100.  The  abiding  need. — When  we  compare  this  with 
the  old  accusation  that  missions  in  their  zeal  for  soul  sal- 
vation did  nothing  for  the  needs  of  men's  bodies  and 
condition  we  are  reminded  of  the  word  of  One  who  said 
that  he  had  piped  unto  men  and  they  had  not  danced  and 
mourned  unto  them  and  they  had  not  lamented.  Never- 
theless, here  is  much  wholesome  truth.  One  may  keep 
his  soul  in  the  midst  of  a  very  miserable  world,  one 
may  lose  it  in  the  midst  of  a  very  comfortable  one,  or, 
again,  one  may  never  develop  a  soul  sufficiently  large  to 
be  lost.  Some  of  those  who  most  completely  lose  their 
souls  are  not  those  who  have  the  comforts  but  are 


90  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

merely  sufficiently  set  on  obtaining  them.  If  Buddha 
taught  men  this,  it  would  indeed  be  a  pity  that  the 
emissaries  of  Christ  should  undo  the  benefit  of  the 
teaching.  Religion  may  be  one  of  the  great  creators  of 
civilization.  It  creates  civilization,  however,  only  as 
a  by-product.  It  is  not  created  by  civilization,  though 
it  is  sometimes  thus  profitably  amended.  In  our  pre- 
cipitancy we  should  not  forget  that  religion  is  the  only 
remedy  that  we  have  against  an  inherent  tendency  of 
high  civilization  to  destroy  character  and  personality. 
Nothing  is  more  evident  than  is  this  truth  in  our  own 
nation  where  yet  the  civilization  which  has  been  the  slow 
achievement  of  our  own  ancestors  has  been  paid  for  in 
blood  and  tears  which  are  not  altogether  forgotten. 
How  much  more  must  this  be  true  in  the  case  in  which  a 
complex  civilization  has  been  not  evolved  but  simply 
appropriated,  where  it  has  not  grown  up  as  part  of  the 
nation's  life  but  is  simply  put  on  like  a  new  and  gaudy 
but  ill-fitting  coat.  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  we 
can  go  back  to  that  apprehension  of  the  gospel  wherein 
the  present  lif e  and  world  stood  for  nothing  and  the  trans- 
cendent world  with  the  inner  life  for  all.  Yet  what  is 
needed  is  still  that  kind  of  ministry  to  character,  that 
alchemy  of  character,  which  none  among  men  has  ever 
so  exemplified  as  did  Jesus  and  which  true  followers  of 
Christ  seek  to  exemplify.  It  is  the  alchemy  which  can 
make  a  son  of  God  and  a  saint  out  of  the  most  forlorn 
being  in  an  untransformed  world  but  which  will  also 
infallibly  set  that  saint  upon  the  transformation  of  his 
world. 

101.  Origins  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. — Allusion  has 
been  made  to  the  part  played  by  the  Society  or  Company 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  91 

of  Jesus,  the  so-called  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  as  the  great 
agency  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the  inaugura- 
tion of  foreign  missionary  work  in  the  beginning  of  the 
era  with  which  we  are  concerned.  The  Society  was  the 
instrument  of  many  of  the  changes  in  the  Roman  church 
which  together  constituted  the  counter-Reformation. 
It  was  the  means  of  the  reassertion  of  characteristic 
principles  of  that  communion  and  of  the  establishment 
of  that  church  since  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  position 
which  it  has  taken  over  against  the  great  fact  of  the 
Protestant  schism.  The  activity  of  the  Society  in  the 
propagation  of  the  faith  in  the  non-European  world  is 
one  of  its  great  titles  to  fame.  It  unfolded  that  activity 
from  its  earliest  years  and  availed  itself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity afforded  by  the  conquests  and  commerce  of 
Portugal  and  Spain  in  the  opening  of  the  new  Eastern 
and  Western  worlds.  Mission  work,  first  among  heretics 
and  afterward  among  the  heathen,  and  education  were 
named  as  their  special  tasks  by  the  members  of  the 
little  company  as  they  defined  their  objects  on  their 
first  visit  together  to  Rome  in  1537. 

102.  Francis  Xavier. — Pope  Paul  III,  by  his  bull, 
"Regimini, ':  September  27,  1540,  confirmed  the  new 
order.  New  privileges  facilitating  the  ministrations  of 
the  company  in  all  parts  of  the  world  were  conferred 
in  1545  and  1549,  Loyola  having  been  made  general  in 
1 541.  The  member  of  the  original  company  who 
devoted  himself  to  foreign  missionary  work  was,  however, 
the  Navarrese,  Francis  Xavier,  often  called  "The 
Apostle  of  the  Indies. "  He  was  a  student  in  Paris  at 
the  time  that  he  was  won,  not  without  difficulty  at  the 
first,  by  Loyola  for  his  missionary  schemes,  and  he  was 


92  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

one  of  the  seven  who  took  the  original  vows  on  Mont- 
martre  in  1 534.  In  1 53 7  the  two  were  at  Venice  planning 
to  start  for  Palestine  to  convert  the  Moslems.  War 
hindered.  Loyola  remained  henceforth  involved  in  the 
affairs  of  administration.  Xavier  sailed  from  Lisbon  in 
1 541  and  reached  Goa  in  1542,  having  been  more  than 
a  year  upon  the  voyage.  In  1549  he  went  to  Japan  in 
company  with  a  Japanese  whom  he  had  met  at  Malacca. 
On  that  voyage  he  formed  his  plan  to  go  also  to  China. 
On  the  island  of  Changchuen  Shan  off  the  coast  of  Kwang- 
tung  he  died  of  fever  in  1552,  having  given  to  his  society 
and  communion  by  his  faith  and  energy  a  foreign  mis- 
sionary impulse  which  they  have  never  lost. 

103.  The  Congregation  "de  Propaganda  Fide." — 
Missionary  work  in  the  new  world  was  later  inaugurated 
also  by  Franciscans  and  by  groups  of  monks  from  certain 
other  orders.  There  was  rivalry  among  the  societies. 
The  Congregation  of  the  Propagation,  de  Propaganda 
Fide,  was  established  by  Gregory  XV  in  1622  and  added 
to  by  Urban  VIII,  who  founded  the  celebrated  College 
of  the  Propaganda  for  the  education  of  missionaries 
and  set  up  a  polyglot  press  for  printing  liturgical  books 
for  the  East.  The  Congregation  had  charge  of  the 
administration  of  the  Roman  church  in  all  non- Catholic 
countries,  for  which  it  discharged  the  functions  of  all 
the  other  papal  congregations  except  in  doctrinal  and 
strictly  legislative  matters.  The  missions  begin  every- 
where by  establishing  apostolic  prefectures  under  the 
charge  of  priests.  The  prefecture  is  later  transformed 
into  an  apostolic  vicariate  having  at  its  head  a  bishop. 
Finally  the  hierarchy,  that  is  the  diocesan  episcopate, 
is  established  in  the  country  with  residential  sees.     The 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  93 

Constitution  "Sapienti,"  in  1908,  withdrew  from  the 
Propaganda  and  put  under  the  common  law  of  the  church 
most  of  those  parts  of  the  world  in  which  the  hierarchy 
had  been  previously  established  or  re-established,  as  for 
example  in  the  United  States.  The  Propaganda  is  the 
Roman  church  in  its  specific  missionary  activity. 

104.  Organizations  of  the  Established  Church  of 
England. — When  we  come  to  speak  of  the  organization 
of  the  Protestant  world  for  missionary  work  we  meet, 
in  contrast  with  this  imposing  unity  of  the  Roman 
church,  bewildering  variety.  The  oldest  society  in 
Great  Britain  is  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.  It  may  claim  to  be  the  official 
representative  of  the  Church  of  England,  since  it  was 
brought  into  existence  as  the  result  of  a  resolution 
passed  by  Convocation  in  1700  and  all  diocesan  bishops 
in  England  are  ex  officiis  members  of  its  standing 
committee.  The  Society  was  founded  with  the  two- 
fold aim  of  ministering  to  English  settlers  beyond  the 
seas  and  of  spreading  the  gospel  among  the  heathen  with 
whom  the  settlers  might  be  brought  into  contact.  It 
supplied  clergy  for  the  dependencies  of  Great  Britain 
and  began  work  in  1702  among  negroes  and  Indians 
of  North  America.  This  official  character  of  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  did  not,  however,  prevent  the  estab- 
lishment in  1 799  of  a  voluntary  organization,  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  which  sent  its  first  missionaries  to 
West  Africa.  This  society  was  brought  into  being  by 
the  great  evangelical  and  missionary  revival  which 
passed  over  Britain  and  portions  of  the  Continent  and 
America  in  the  last  years  of  the  eighteenth  and  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


94  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

105.  Other  British  societies. — In  Scotland,  John  Knox 
had  declared  his  belief  that  the  gospel  should  be  preached 
throughout  the  whole  world.  Yet  it  was  in  1796 
that  the  Scottish,  afterward  called  the  Edinburgh, 
Society  was  organized  which  sent  out  as  its  first  mission- 
ary a  gardener,  a  member  of  the  Secession  Church, 
who  was  afterward  murdered  in  West  Africa.  The 
Established  Church  of  Scotland  formed  a  Foreign 
Missions  Committee  in  1825.  When  the  disruption  took 
place  in  1843  by  which  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  came 
into  being  the  General  Assembly  of  this  church  formed 
also  a  Foreign  Missions  Committee.  Indeed  the  Free 
Church  movement  served  vastly  to  enhance  the  mission- 
ary interest  in  Scotland,  just  as  the  formation  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  had  expressed  a  new  enthu- 
siasm in  England.  Ever  memorable  is  the  formation  of 
the  Baptist  Mission  Society  in  1792  as  the  result  of  the 
appeal  to  his  fellow-Baptists  by  William  Carey,  the 
Northamptonshire  cobbler  who  became  its  first  mis- 
sionary. Typical  in  another  respect  is  the  London 
Missionary  Society  founded  in  1795.  For  years  it  was 
an  interdenominational  body,  although  now  sustained 
chiefly  by  members  of  the  Congregational  church. 
These  are  but  a  few  examples  of  the  many  organizations 
for  both  general  and  special  missionary  purposes  which 
the  early  days  of  the  movement  brought  forth  and  later 
years  tended  ever  to  increase. 

106.  German  Pietists. — Before  this  awakening  in  the 
British  Isles  noteworthy  endeavors  had  been  put  forth 
on  the  Continent  by  German  Pietists  and  by  the 
Moravian  church.  Indeed,  the  Pietist  and  Moravian 
effort  had  much  to  do  with  the  awakening  of  evangeli- 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  95 

calism  and  Methodism  in  England.  Spcner,  the  father 
of  the  Pietist  movement,  did  not  wish  his  followers  to 
separate  themselves  from  the  Lutheran  church.  He 
wished  rather  to  reform  that  church  from  within.  They 
wished  to  return  to  that  devotion  to  the  Bible  which  had 
characterized  the  Lutheran  Reformation.  Spener's 
younger  colleague,  Francke,  after  1692  professor  in 
Halle  and  founder  of  the  famous  orphanage  and  schools 
for  the  children  of  the  poor,  took  deep  interest  in  foreign 
missions.  Halle  became  the  center  for  the  education 
of  men  who  wished  to  preach  the  gospel  in  foreign  parts 
as  well  as  for  those  who  dedicated  themselves  to  the  work 
of  the  Pietist  revival  in  Germany.  Schwartz,  who  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  of  the  Halle  missionaries,  worked  in 
Danish  possessions  in  India  under  state  appointment. 
Men  of  the  same  German  race  and  Pietist  type  worked 
under  the  English  both  in  India  and  in  the  West  Indies 
during  the  period  before  the  commercial  companies  were 
yet  hostile  to  missions  and  before  the  religious  mind  of 
Britain  had  begun  to  feel  its  responsibility. 

107.  The  Moravians;  other  Continental  societies. — 
In  the  little  communities  of  the  Moravians,  Pietism 
became  the  basis  of  a  church  which  was  recognized  by 
the  Saxon  state.  These  members  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum, 
inheritors  of  the  Hussite  tradition,  fleeing  in  1722  from 
persecution  in  Austria,  found  refuge  on  the  estates  of 
Count  Zinzendorf  at  Bertelsdorf  and  later  at  Herrnhut 
near  Dresden.  Zinzendorf  had  been  a  pupil  of  Francke 
at  Halle.  He  withdrew  from  the  service  of  the  state 
because  of  his  convictions.  As  bishop  of  the  Moravian 
community  after  1737,  he  traveled  widely  in  Europe  and 
America.     The  Moravian  church  conducted  an  ardent 


96  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

propaganda  for  its  principles  in  many  countries.  Its 
chief  title  to  fame,  however,  is  its  devotion  to  the  cause  of 
foreign  missions.  No  body  of  believers  in  modern 
times  has  given  so  large  a  proportion  of  its  communicant 
membership  or  of  its  money  to  missionary  work.  It 
was  the  glory  of  the  Moravians  to  go  to  those  portions 
of  the  world  whither  no  one  else  wished  to  go.  The 
general  cause  received  from  the  Moravians  throughout 
the  eighteenth  century  an  impulse  which  was  quite 
incomparable.  The  German  societies  of  the  present 
day  are  all  voluntary  societies  and  all  bear  trace  of  the 
Pietist  influence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  established 
Church  of  Holland  has  a  considerable  mission  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  The  Basel  Society  has  close 
affiliation  with  the  German  organization.  The  Protes- 
tant body  in  France  is  small,  yet  it  has  done,  through 
its  Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society,  a  work  of  great 
effectiveness  in  Africa  and  Madagascar. 

108.  American  societies. — The  enthusiasm  for  foreign 
missions  found  its  first  expression  in  America  in  1806 
when  three  students  in  Williams  College,  Mills,  Hall, 
and  Richards,  resolved  to  form  a  society,  the  object  of 
which  should  be  "to  effect  in  the  person  of  its  mem- 
bers a  mission  to  the  heathen. "  Mills  and  Hall  entered 
Andover  Seminary  in  18 10,  where  they  met  Newell 
and  Judson,  who  shared  their  aims.  The  desire  of  these 
young  men  to  be  sent  out  as  missionaries  led  to  the 
founding  by  the  General  Association  of  Congregational 
Churches  of  Massachusetts  in  18 10  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  In  181 2 
the  first  five  missionaries,  of  whom  Judson  was  one, 
sailed  for  Calcutta.    Hall  was  peremptorily  ordered  by 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  97 

the  Company  to  leave  Calcutta,  but  he  became  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Marathi  Mission.  Judson,  during 
his  voyage,  had  become  convinced  of  the  validity  of 
Baptist  contentions.  He  became  instrumental  in  the 
founding  in  1814  of  the  Society  known  after  1846  as 
the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union.  He  spent  his 
life  in  Burma.  In  181 2  the  Presbyterians  decided  to 
support  the  American  Board.  In  1837,  however,  the  so- 
called  Old  School  Presbyterians  withdrew  to  form  the 
Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  In  1870  the 
New  School  Presbyterians  also,  uniting  with  the  other 
branch  of  their  church,  joined  in  support  of  their  own 
denominational  board.  Similarly,  the  Reformed  Dutch 
church  in  America  supported  the  American  Board  until 
1855,  when  it  withdrew  to  establish  a  society  under  its 
own  name.  Since  1870  the  American  Board  has  been  the 
organ  of  the  Congregational  churches  only  and  in  ever 
closer  relation  to  the  organization  of  those  churches. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States 
inaugurated  in  1833  a  foreign  missionary  work  which  has 
grown  to  vast  proportions.  The  Prostestant  Episcopal 
church  in  the  United  States  sought  in  18 17  to  establish  a 
basis  of  co-operation  with  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
of  England,  but  was  urged  by  that  society  to  organize 
a  work  of  its  own.  In  1820  the  Domestic  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  of  this  church  was  formed,  and  in 
1835  the  church  itself  took  over  this  society,  reorganiz- 
ing it  into  two  committees  under  the  authority  of  the 
church.  The  societies  named  are  but  examples.  There 
is  scarcely  a  denomination  of  Christians  in  America 
which  is  not  organized  in  some  way  for  foreign  propa- 
ganda.    Only  typical  cases  have  been  taken. 


98  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

109.  Women's  boards. — Many  of  the  Protestant  soci- 
eties, especially  those  in  America,  have  auxiliary  bodies 
composed  of  and  directed  by  women  of  their  denomi- 
national constituency.  These  societies  are  sometimes 
merely  branches  or  committees.  Sometimes  they  are 
special  chartered  corporations.  Many  of  them  were 
established  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  number  of  unmarried  women  sent  out 
in  the  service  of  the  boards  greatly  increased.  At  the 
same  time  the  expansion  of  specific  work  for  women 
in  the  field  rendered  appropriate  the  assigning  of  such 
work  to  the  responsibility  of  women  in  the  home  lands. 
The  last  half-century  has  seen  great  changes  in  the 
position  and  activities  of  women  in  Western  lands. 
Large  numbers  of  women  teachers  and  more  recently 
considerable  numbers  of  nurses  and  physicians  have 
gone  to  the  Orient  and  to  Africa.  Zenanas  and  harems 
at  one  time  presented  a  problem  which  only  women 
could  reach.  Work  for  children  has  always  been  largely 
in  their  hands.  Through  their  work  in  no  small  measure 
have  come  about  the  changes  in  the  status  and  outlook 
of  women  in  Eastern  lands.  They  have  opened  careers 
for  women  in  which  foreign  women  have  been  for  a  time 
the  leaders.  The  education  of  women  is  now  part  of 
the  accepted  order  of  things  in  almost  all  these  countries. 
Again  the  introduction  of  women  into  factory  labor,  as 
in  Japan  and  India,  creates  conditions  parallel  to  those 
which  exist  in  the  great  industrial  centers  in  the  West 
and  calls  for  the  type  of  women's  work  familiar  in  our 
settlements.  Furthermore,  in  view  of  the  preponderance 
of  women  in  Protestant  churches  and  of  their  influence 
in  homes,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  boards  could  have  met 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  99 

the  ever-enlarging  opportunity  which  recent  decades 
have  brought  them  without  that  characteristic  element 
which  the  co-operation  of  women  has  furnished,  both 
in  respect  of  the  maintenance  of  the  personnel  and  of 
the  appeal  for  funds. 

no.  Origin  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion.— It  remains  to  speak  of  two  interdenominational 
organizations,  one  of  which  is  also  international,  which 
have  largely  aided  the  foreign  missionary  work  under- 
taken either  by  the  churches  or  by  bodies  of  Christians 
less  or  more  closely  related  to  churches.  These  are  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Bible  soci- 
eties. The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  was 
founded  by  George  Williams,  a  London  merchant,  in 
1844.  It  grew  out  of  meetings  which  Williams  held 
for  prayer  and  Bible  reading  among  his  fellow- workers 
in  a  dry  goods  business  in  the  city  of  London.  The 
primary  object  of  the  new  Association  was  to  provide 
a  rendezvous  in  large  towns  for  young  men  who  were 
compelled  to  live  in  lodgings  or  in  apartments  provided 
by  the  great  business  houses.  Membership  was  condi- 
tioned not  merely  upon  moral  character  and  sympathy 
with  the  aims  of  the  Association  but  also  upon  the 
acceptance  of  the  doctrines  of  evangelical  denomina- 
tions. The  Association  thus  reflected  in  its  very  origin 
the  reaction  against  liberalism.  This  reaction  character- 
ized revival  movements  widespread  and  influential  in 
both  Great  Britain  and  America  in  the  middle  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Association  did  really  express  the  eagerness  of  the  time 
to  escape  denominational  animosities  and  exaggerations, 
which  were  also  characteristic  of  those  decades. 


ioo  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

in.  Work  of  the  Association. — Furthermore,  its  en- 
deavor was  related  to  the  growing  enthusiasm  for 
the  application  of  the  religious  motive  to  the  ameliora- 
tion of  social  conditions.  This  was  another  of  the 
marked  traits  of  the  spirit  of  the  age.  The  associations 
soon  became  centers  of  effort  for  the  popularization  of 
certain  elements  of  education  and  for  the  redemption 
of  sport  and  athletics  from  connections  which  had  at 
times  been  reprobated,  by  none  more  sincerely  than 
by  earnest  Pietists  and  evangelicals.  Upon  the  lines 
of  these  endeavors  the  Association  came  presently  to 
have  great  influence  also  upon  the  student  life  of  both 
England  and  America.  On  the  whole,  the  movement 
appears  to  have  had  far  larger  development  in  the 
United  States  than  in  the  country  of  its  origin.  The 
first  American  associations  were  established  in  Montreal 
and  Boston,  both  in  185 1.  The  original  aims  of  the 
institution  were  thus  quite  different  from  those  of  the 
foreign  missionary  cause.  The  background  of  the  two 
movements  was,  however,  much  the  same.  It  is  clear 
also  that  the  Association  could  easily  become  an  agency 
of  greatest  usefulness  both  to  the  youth  of  Europe  and 
America  resident  in  the  commercial  centers  of  the  non- 
Christian  world  and  as  well  to  the  youth  of  non- 
Christian  races  as  these  also  gathered  in  the  old  treaty 
ports  or  again  in  the  rapidly  enlarging  student  centers 
of  the  Orient.  Modifications  of  the  Association's  activ- 
ities to  meet  parallel  needs  of  young  men  of  all  lands 
and  many  faiths  gave  rise  to  the  international  phase 
of  its  development.  The  Association  has  thus  become 
an  auxiliary  missionary  agency  co-operating  with  others 
already  in  foreign  fields.     It  had  in  mind  primarily  a 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  101 

special  service  and  that  to  a  specific  constituency,  the 
young  men  of  the  lands  which  the  missions  and  com- 
merce had  opened  to  the  contacts  of  Christendom.  It 
is  easy  to  see  also  that  the  organization  of  the  Chris- 
tian Association  has  made  it  capable  of  rendering  unique 
service  to  the  mission  cause  in  the  home  lands.  By  its 
international  and  interdenominational  character  it  was 
peculiarly  fitted  to  act  as  intermediary  in  the  common 
interests  and  transactions  of  those  concerned  with  mis- 
sions. As  a  matter  of  fact  almost  all  the  great  interna- 
tional and  interdenominational  missionary  conventions 
of  more  recent  years  have  been  organized  through  the 
machinery  of  the  Association.  In  growing  measure, 
also,  publications  relative  to  the  cause  and  such  as  are 
of  use  to  many  or  all  of  the  societies  are  issued  through 
agencies  which  the  Association  has  brought  into  being. 
Propaganda  among  college  and  university  students  who 
might  be  led  to  volunteer  to  give  themselves  later  to 
the  missionary  life  has  been  largely  conducted  through 
this  instrumentality.  A  similar  though  as  yet  a  smaller 
development  and  influence  have  attended  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association,  whose  world-organi- 
zation was  formed  in  1894.  Eighteen  national  associa- 
tions are  now  affiliated.  Several  of  them  maintain 
their  characteristic  work  for  women  at  many  centers 
in  foreign  lands. 

112.  Origin  of  the  Bible  societies. — The  same  era 
which  brought  into  being  most  of  the  great  modern 
missionary  societies  witnessed  the  founding  also  of  the 
other  great  co-operating  agency  which  we  have  in  mind, 
namely  the  Bible  societies.  Here  also  we  can  choose 
but  one  or  two  typical  examples  which  may  serve  to 


102  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

show  what  is  meant.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  established  in  1804,  might  be  said  almost  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  phrase  of  a  Mr.  Hughes, 
who,  when  listening  to  the  claim  of  needy  Wales  for 
copies  of  the  Bible,  exclaimed:  "And  if  for  Wales,  why 
not  for  the  whole  world?"  Once  this  society  and 
others  like  it  were  launched  upon  their  world-wide 
endeavor,  the  missions  which  were  the  creation  of  the 
same  new  enthusiasm  were  the  natural  organizations 
through  which  the  desired  distribution  of  Bibles  could 
take  place.  They  were  also  the  sources  whence  new 
suggestions  as  to  needed  translations  arose.  They  were 
the  areas  from  which  alone,  in  most  cases,  the  trans- 
lators were  forthcoming.  On  the  other  hand,  once  the 
missions  had  faced  their  task,  they  must  have  realized 
that  the  books  which  the  Bible  societies  furnished  could 
multiply  the  endeavors  of  their  evangelists  and  preach- 
ers a  thousand  fold.  They  could  be  to  the  nascent 
Christian  communities  all  over  the  world  the  basis  of 
culture,  the  means  of  the  uplifting  and  fortifying  and 
educating  of  the  spirit  of  nations,  just  as  the  Bible  had 
been  in  all  the  nations  of  the  Protestant  world  since 
the  era  of  the  Reformation.  As  we  look  back  upon 
the  history  of  these  two  movements  either  seems  almost 
unthinkable  without  the  other. 

113.  The  work  of  the  Bible  societies. — The  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  published  in  connection  with  its 
hundredth  anniversary  in  1904  a  monumental  catalogue 
of  its  collection  of  Bibles,  a  collection  which  from  many 
points  of  view  is  without  rival  in  the  world.  It  is  a 
book  of  four  large  volumes.  It  contains  more  than 
nine  thousand  entries  of  Bibles  or  parts  of  Bibles  in 


MISSIONARY  INSTRUMENTALITIES  103 

more  than  six  hundred  distinct  languages  or  dialects 
which  are  now  spoken,  and  in  some  eighty  which 
are  now  obsolete.  In  overwhelming  proportion  these 
versions  have  been  published  by  one  or  another  of  the 
three  great  Bible  societies — the  British,  the  American, 
and  the  Scottish — or  else  they  have  been  made  possible 
through  subvention  from  one  or  another  of  these  soci- 
eties to  missionary  presses  in  all  lands.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  Bible  existed  in  thirty  different 
languages  or  dialects  in  the  year  1804,  in  which  the 
British  Society  received  its  charter.  In  overwhelming 
proportion  these  translations,  made  during  the  nine- 
teenth century,  are  the  work  of  missionaries  and  of 
native  scholars  called  to  their  aid  in  the  fields  in  which 
the  missionaries  worked.  In  some  cases,  as  in  those  of 
the  versions  into  the  Mandarin  or  into  Arabic,  or  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Brahmans  in  India  or  the  Buddhists 
in  Japan,  the  work  has  been  commonly  done  by  com- 
missions, groups  of  men,  Christian  and  non-Christian, 
equal  in  learning  to  any  scholars  of  their  day.  These 
translators  aimed  to  set  the  Scriptures  of  the  Christian 
faith  in  worthy  fashion  side  by  side  with  sacred  books 
of  the  East  in  the  very  homes  of  those  sacred  books 
and  the  seats  of  their  immeasurable  influence.  At  the 
opposite  pole  from  these  relatively  few  translations  into 
the  languages  of  the  world's  great  religions  are  the  far 
more  numerous  cases  in  which  the  tongues  of  the  vari- 
ous peoples  whom  it  was  sought  to  reach  had  perhaps 
never  been  reduced  to  writing.  They  contained  but 
poor  equivalents,  or  no  equivalents  whatsoever,  for 
the  words  and  phrases  fundamental  to  the  Christian 
speech.     Jest   has   been   made  as  to  the  difficulty  of 


104  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

translating,  for  example,  a  psalm  touching  the  praise 
of  God  in  nature  as  men  know  nature  in  Palestine 
into  the  language,  say,  of  the  Eskimos  upon  their 
treeless  shores,  with  their  limited  fauna  and  their  frozen 
streams.  There  was  the  difficulty  of  describing  sheep 
and  camels  and  even  horses  to  a  South  Sea  islander, 
whose  only  quadrupeds  were  pigs  and  rats.  These  are, 
however,  minor  difficulties  compared  with  the  rendering 
of  such  words  as  "faith,"  "justification,"  "atonement," 
"sanctification,"  and  "redemption,"  into  the  speech  of 
peoples  whose  very  religion  contained  no  such  notions. 
Such  translations  have,  however,  been  made  not  only 
scores  but  hundreds  of  times  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  have  been  made  almost  inevitably  by  missionaries 
who  were  giving  their  lives  to  the  tribes  or  the  islands 
concerned.  The  American  Bible  Society  alone  issued 
in  the  year  191 5  something  over  six  million  copies  of 
Bibles,  or  parts  of  the  Bible,  in  some  one  of  the  one 
hundred  and  sixty-nine  different  languages  on  its  list. 
In  the  hundred  years  of  its  existence  it  had  issued  more 
than  one  hundred  and  ten  million  copies  of  the  Bible 
or  of  portions  of  the  Bible.  It  had  spent  $38,000,000. 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  its  first  hun- 
dred and  twelve  years,  from  1804  to  19 16,  had  four 
hundred  and  ninety-seven  languages  to  its  credit  on 
its  list  of  versions.  It  had  issued  three  times  as  many 
copies  of  Bibles  or  of  parts  of  the  Bible  as  the  American 
Society  and  had  spent  two  and  one-half  times  the 
income.  It  is  certain  that  the  major  societies  have 
put  into  circulation  within  the  last  century  more  than 
five  hundred  million  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  by  no 
means  all  gratis  yet  practically  always  below  cost. 


PART  II 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  MOVEMENT 

WITH  INDICATIONS  OF  THE  PRESENT 

SITUATION  IN  DIFFERENT  LANDS 


CHAPTER  VII 
INDIA 


CHAPTER  VII 

INDIA 

114.  Beginnings  of  Christianity  in  India:  Francis  Xavier 

115.  Xavier's  successors  and  their  methods 

116.  Beginnings  of  Protestant  missions:  the  Pietists 

117.  The  India  of  the  eighteenth  century 

118.  Beginnings  of  British  missions:  Heber  and  Henry  Martyn 

119.  Carey 

120.  Duff 

121.  The  first  American  missionaries 

122.  Antecedents  of  the  Mutiny 

123.  The  Mutiny  and  its  consequences 

124.  Expansion  of  mission  work  after  the  Mutiny 

125.  Sectarianism 

126.  Caste 

127.  Language 

128.  The  indigenous  church 

129.  The  Christian  movement 

130.  Missions   and   the   industrial   situation;    government    co- 
operation 

131.  Missions  and  education 

132.  Philanthropy  and  reform 

133.  Reform  and  revival  of  Hindu  religions 


CHAPTER  VII 

INDIA 

114.  Beginnings  of  Christianity  in  India:  Francis 
Xavier. — India  was  the  first  Asiatic  country  in  which 
Christian  missionary  work  was  organized  after  that 
revival  of  the  spirit  of  missions  which  culminated  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  There  is  a 
legend  to  the  effect  that  the  apostle  Thomas  preached 
the  gospel  in  Southern  India.  His  tomb  is  shown  today 
at  Mylapore.  The  tradition  is  not  of  very  ancient 
origin.  The  name  " India"  was  used  by  early  Chris- 
tian writers  for  several  different  countries.  We  are 
perhaps  on  firm  ground  if  we  connect  the  beginnings 
of  Christianity  in  India  with  the  wanderings  of  Nes- 
torian  exiles.  References  in  Marco  Polo,  John  of 
Monte  Corvino,  and  Sir  John  Mandeville  prove  the 
presence  of  Christians  in  India  in  considerable  numbers 
before  the  coming  of  the  Portuguese.  In  1500  Cabral 
brought  to  Calicut  monks,  Franciscans  and  Domini- 
cans, who  were  to  conduct  mission  work  under  the 
patronage  of  the  king  of  Portugal.  In  1534  Goa  was 
constituted  a  bishopric.  Its  constituency  was  mainly 
of  Europeans  and  of  men  of  mixed  race.  In  1599 
the  Portuguese  endeavored  to  force  so-called  Syrian 
Christians  into  obedience  to  the  See  of  Rome.  In  18 16 
the  English  Church  Missionary  Society  sent  a  "mission 
of  help  "  to  revive  the  Syrian  church  in  India.  The  man 
to  whom,  however,  the  personal  leadership  in  work  for 
India  was  to  fall  was  Francis  Xavier.     He  arrived  at 

109 


no  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Goa  in  1542.  Before  that  time  thousands  of  the  pearl 
fishers  of  low  caste  had  suffered  themselves  to  be  bap- 
tized in  return  for  protection  afforded  them  by  Portu- 
guese soldiers  and  sailors  against  Mohammedan  pirates. 
No  priest  had  been  sent  among  them  to  teach  the  mean- 
ing of  baptism.  Xavier  spent  a  year  among  them, 
living  as  one  of  their  number.  At  no  time  during  the 
years  of  his  residence  in  India  did  he  make  effort  to 
learn  any  language  in  which  he  might  communicate 
with  those  among  whom  he  labored.  He  urged  the 
king  of  Portugal  to  force  the  governors,  by  fear  of  royal 
disfavor,  to  gain  adherents  for  Christianity.  The 
bishopric  claimed  300,000  Christians  in  1557.  We  have 
many  interesting  letters  of  Xavier.  It  is  but  fair  to 
say  that  he  was  profoundly  dissatisfied  with  the  results 
of  his  labor.  There  is,  moreover,  no  Christian  mission- 
ary concerning  whom  it  is  more  just  to  acknowledge 
his  personal  devotion  and  his  power  to  inspire  others, 
while  at  the  same  time  we  realize  that  he  was  the  child 
of  his  own  time. 

115.  Xavier1  s  successors  and  their  methods. — A  dis- 
tinguished Italian  Jesuit,  di  Nobili,  who  reached  India 
in  1605,  inaugurated  his  work  outside  of  the  area  in 
which  Portuguese  political  influence  prevailed.  He 
determined  to  make  himself  an  Indian  in  order  that 
he  might  win  Indians  to  Christ.  He  adopted  the  dress 
of  a  Brahman  and  put  the  sacred  marks  upon  his  fore- 
head. He  kept  himself  aloof  from  the  lower  castes. 
Among  di  Nobili's  successors,  those  who  worked  for 
the  higher  castes  refused  intercourse  even  with  mission- 
aries who  worked  for  the  lower  castes.  In  1703  the 
papacy   repudiated    many   of   these   practices   of   the 


INDIA  1 1 1 

Jesuits,  especially  condemning  the  refusal  of  the  com- 
munion to  pariahs.  There  is  record  of  measurable 
success  of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  Northern  India  also, 
especially  at  the  court  of  the  Mogul  Emperor  Akbar. 
Three  princes  of  the  royal  blood  are  supposed  to  have 
been  baptized  at  Lahore  in  1670.  Yet  despite  much 
labor  and  self-denial  the  testimony  of  the  Abbe  Dubois 
in  1823  was  to  the  effect  that  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionary work  in  the  part  of  India  of  which  he  had 
knowledge  was  relatively  a  failure.  The  attitude  of 
the  natives  was  such  as  to  render  the  prosecution  of 
the  work  almost  hopeless.  The  suspension  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1773  had  everywhere  injured  their 
work.  The  missionary  work  of  the  Roman  church  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  deeply  needed, 
as  it  also  received,  a  revival  and  renewal  parallel 
in  many  ways  to  that  which  affected  the  Protestant 
bodies  at  the  same  time. 

116.  Beginnings  of  Protestant  missions:  the  Pietists. 
— The  British  East  India  Company,  especially  in  its 
earlier  years,  permitted  chaplains  sent  out  under  its 
auspices  to  consider  also  the  religious  welfare  of  Indians 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  The  Company  had 
not  yet  taken  up  the  attitude  of  hostility  to  missions 
which  it  later  assumed.  It  was  the  Danish  government 
which  first  took  direct  responsibility  for  Protestant 
missionary  work  in  India.  The  court  chaplain  of 
King  Frederick  IV,  not  being  able  to  find  suitable  men 
in  Denmark,  applied  to  Francke  in  Halle.  Francke 
named  to  him  Ziegenbalg  and  Pliitschau,  who  were  sent 
out  from  Copenhagen  by  the  bishop  of  Zealand  in  1705. 
Ziegenbalg  worked  in  Tranquebar,  winning  the  aid  of 


H2  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  English  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Christian 
Knowledge  and  the  favor  of  King  George  I.  Pliitschau 
made  the  Tamil  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  most  distinguished  of  these  German  Pietist  mission- 
aries, however,  was  Schwartz.  First  at  Tranquebar  and 
then  at  Trichinopoly,  he  ultimately  became  a  sort  of 
minister  to  the  rajah  of  Tanjore.  He  lived  in  India 
for  nearly  fifty  years.  He  left  the  Danish  mission  in 
1767  and  became  a  chaplain  under  the  British  Com- 
pany. The  rajah  before  his  death,  in  1787,  desired  to 
appoint  Schwartz  the  guardian  of  his  heir  and  regent 
of  his  kingdom.  To  both  of  these  posts  he  was 
appointed  two  years  later  by  the  British  authorities. 
The  commander  of  the  British  army  in  South  India 
wrote  in  1783:  "The  knowledge  and  integrity  of  this 
irreproachable  missionary  have  retrieved  the  character 
of  Europeans  from  imputations  of  general  depravity." 
When  Hyder  Ali,  the  nawab  of  Mysore,  refused  to 
receive  an  embassy  from  the  English,  whom  he  dis- 
trusted, he  said,  "Send  me  the  Christian,  Schwartz 
will  not  deceive  me."  The  monument  which  the  East 
India  Company  erected  to  his  memory  in  Madras  in 
1798  speaks  of  him  as  having  rendered  incomparable 
service  to  the  highest  ends  which  the  Company  set 
before  itself. 

117.  The  India  of  the  eighteenth  century. — The  eight- 
eenth century  had  been  a  century  of  great  changes  in 
India.  The  Mogul  Empire  founded  in  1526  by  Baber, 
fifth  in  descent  from  Tamerlane,  was  disintegrating. 
Its  greatest  figure  had  been  Akbar,  who  reigned  from 
1556  to  1605,  almost  exactly  the  years  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  over  a  larger  portion  of  India  than  had  ever 


INDIA  113 

before  acknowledged  the  sway  of  one  man.  He  ruled 
at  Delhi  and  Agra,  his  son  Jahangir  at  Lahore.  The 
last  emperor  of  character  or  ability  had  been  Aurungzeb, 
who  died  in  1707.  Thenceforth  the  empire  of  the  Grand 
Mogul  became  more  and  more  a  name,  although  the 
last  scion  of  the  house  atoned  for  his  association  with 
the  Mutiny  so  late  as  1857.  The  decline  of  the  Mogul 
power  had  made  easier  the  beginnings  of  European 
trade  and  settlement  on  the  coast,  although  the  Moguls, 
who  had  come  from  Tartary  over  the  roof  of  the  world, 
were  never  interested  in  the  coast.  The  Dutch  had 
"  factories,"  as  they  were  called,  on  Ceylon  and  Suma- 
tra. In  1608  they  founded  Batavia  in  Java.  The  long 
warfare  of  Dutch  and  English  for  commerce  in  tht 
East  was  not  ended  until  William  III  united  the  tws 
crowns  in  1689.  Sir  Francis  Drake  had  shown  the  waj 
for  Englishmen  to  India.  By  161 2  they  had  wrested 
supremacy  from  the  Portuguese.  In  1661  the  British 
received  Bombay  as  part  of  the  dowry  of  the  Infanta 
Catarina  and  Charles  turned  it  over  to  the  Company. 
Calcutta  was  not  founded  until  1690.  After  the  death 
of  Aurungzeb,  Hyderabad  declared  its  independence. 
The  Carnatic  was  ruled  from  Arcot.  Mysore  was 
becoming  a  third  Indian  state.  The  French  were 
at  Pondicherry  skilfully  playing  off  one  nation 
against  the  other  and  all  against  their  rivals,  the  Eng- 
lish, at  Madras.  Clive  turned  Dupleix'  weapons 
against  himself.  The  Battle  of  Plassey  in  1757,  which 
was  really  an  episode  of  the  rivalry  of  France  and  Eng- 
land in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  put  an  end  to  French 
supremacy  in  India.  Clive's  great  successor,  Warren 
Hastings,  came  to  India  in  1772.    He  triumphed  in  the 


114  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Marathi  wars  and  over  Mysore.  His  government  of 
India  brought  out  bitter  protest  in  England  and  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  struggle  for  the  limitation  of  the 
power  of  the  Company.  His  successor,  Lord  Morn- 
ington,  better  known  as  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley, 
arrived  the  very  year  of  the  death  of  Schwartz,  1798, 
inspired  with  imperial  projects  which  were  destined  to 
change  the  map  of  the  country. 

118.  Beginnings  of  British  missions:  Heber  and 
Henry  Martyn. — It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
during  all  the  time  of  this  remarkable  expansion  of  their 
trade  and  territory  the  British  people  had  had  no  care 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  means  of  grace  and  the 
extension  of  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel  in  the  lands 
which  were  gradually  being  subjected  to  the  crown. 
From  the  time  of  Cranmer  different  movements  for 
colonization  had  recognized  in  principle,  at  least,  the 
necessity  of  Christian  missions.  The  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  was  organized  in 
1698,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
Foreign  Parts,  in  1701.  This  society  gave  a  subvention 
to  the  Danish-Tamil  mission  in  1705.  Throughout  the 
latter  part  of  that  century  it  sent  chaplains  to  India, 
who  were  allowed  to  do  a  certain  measure  of  missionary 
work.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
however,  the  interest  of  the  Church  of  England  in  such 
work  in  India  was  not  great.  It  was  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  a  chartered  body,  which  represented 
the  evangelical  revival  of  the  spirit  of  missions.  It 
was  founded  in  1799.  The  bishops  declined' to  ordain 
its  candidates  and  it  was  not  until  18 19  that  this  diffi- 
culty was  removed.     It   ought   to  be  said  that  the 


INDIA  115 

field  which  the  Church  Missionary  Society  at  first  had 
in  mind  was  Africa.  Its  founders  were,  many  of  them, 
agitators  against  slavery  and  the  slave  trade.  Its  first 
missionary  went  to  India  in  18 13  after  the  opening  of 
India  to  such  work  under  the  revised  charter  of  the 
Company.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  Middleton  was  consecrated 
first  bishop  of  Calcutta  in  18 14.  The  most  distin- 
guished of  the  early  bishops  was  surely  Reginald  Heber, 
who  died  in  1826.  Henry  Martyn,  starting  from  a 
company  chaplaincy,  was  easily  the  most  illustrious  of 
those  who  developed  an  enthusiasm  for  work  among 
the  peoples,  first  of  India  and  then  of  Persia.  He  was 
a  linguist  of  extraordinary  attainments.  He  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  both  Hindi  and  Persian.  He 
was  at  Cawnpore  until  18 10  and  died  at  Tokat  in  181 2, 
in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age,  having  made  over- 
land journeys  which  were  then  almost  unparalleled 
and  left  record  of  the  countries  and  peoples  which  are 
still  classic  and  made  the  impression  of  a  man  of  exalted 
character  and  devotion. 

119.  Carey. — In  1793,  however,  there  had  come  to 
Bengal  William  Carey,  a  cobbler  of  Paulersbury,  North- 
amptonshire, who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  newly 
founded  Baptist  Missionary  Society  of  Great  Britain  in 
1792.  Carey  was  the  impersonation  of  the  new  impulse 
which  was  now  to  make  itself  felt  among  the  peo- 
ple of  Great  Britain  as  it  had  done  in  the  Pietist 
Moravian  communities  in  Germany.  He  was  of  limited 
education  and  income,  preacher  in  a  Baptist  church  at 
Moulton  after  1786.  He  had  wished  at  first  to  go  to 
Tahiti  or  West  Africa.     He  was  appointed  along  with 


n6  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Thomas,  a  surgeon  who  had  resided  in  Bengal.  He 
was  obliged  by  the  attitude  of  the  Company  to  sail  in  a 
Danish  vessel  and  to  land  at  Serampore.  He  believed 
that  it  was  his  duty  to  support  himself.  He  intended 
to  farm,  but  was  soon  chosen  superintendent  of 
an  indigo  factory.  He  preached,  taught,  and  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  Bengali.  When  Fort 
William  College  was  founded  at  Calcutta  under  the 
Company,  Carey  was  appointed  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley  professor  of  Sanskrit,  Bengali,  and  Marathi, 
a  post  which  he  held  for  thirty  years.  That  which 
gave  him  his  fame,  however,  was  his  translation  of  the 
Bible  or  parts  of  the  Bible  into  twenty-four  Indian 
languages  or  dialects.  He  showed  extraordinary  ability 
in  his  management  of  the  Serampore  press,  where  all 
this  great  business  was  carried  on.  He  wrote  articles 
on  the  natural  history  and  botany  of  India  for  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  London,  of  which  society  he  was  a 
member  after  1805.  He  worked  passionately  for  many 
reforms  in  India,  especially  for  the  abolition  of  suttee, 
the  burning  of  widows  on  the  funeral  pyres  of  their 
husbands.  When  in  1829  Lord  William  Bentinck 
signed  the  decree  abolishing  the  rite  the  paper  was 
sent  to  Carey  to  be  translated  into  Bengali.  Carey 
died  in  1834.  He  was  one  of  the  most  modern  of  mis- 
sionaries. To  a  far  greater  extent  than  any  of  his 
predecessors  he  realized  the  comparative  futility  of 
scattered  missions  and  the  impossibility  of  converting 
India  by  the  work  of  European  traveling  preachers. 
By  concentrating  the  greater  part  of  his  activities 
within  a  narrow  circle  and  by  spending  his  time 
upon  the  education  and  training  of  Indian  teachers 


INDIA  117 

he  inaugurated  a  new  method  of  missionary  work 
the  importance  of  which  it  is  still  impossible  to  ex- 
aggerate. 

120.  Duff. — The  impersonation  of  another  move- 
ment in  Indian  missions  which  has  been  very  fruitful 
was  Alexander  DufT.  Duff  was  the  first  missionary 
sent  out  to  India  by  the  Established  Church  of  Scot- 
land. In  right  of  nature  he  was  fitted  to  be  a  great 
educational  figure  in  his  own  land.  He  was  a  Saint 
Andrew's  University  man  and  had  been  much  influ- 
enced by  Dr.  Chalmers.  He  came  to  India  in  1830, 
having  been  at  sea  eight  months  and  shipwrecked  twice 
upon  the  way.  He  determined  to  strike  into  the  great 
educational  movement  which  had  lain  as  an  ideal  before 
Carey  and  which  in  quite  different  aspects  of  it  was 
beginning  to  be  one  of  the  concerns  of  the  Company. 
He  realized  the  necessity  of  reaching  the  higher  classes. 
He  proposed  to  provide  schools  for  youth  of  the  higher 
castes  of  Northern  India  in  which,  through  the  medium 
of  the  English  language,  a  liberal  education  in  all  sub- 
jects was  to  be  offered  to  those  who  were  willing  to 
receive  Christian  instruction  at  the  hands  of  mission- 
aries thoroughly  competent  in  educational  matters.  He 
thought  English  the  only  language  in  which,  as  things 
then  were,  a  comprehensive  Western  education  could 
be  given  in  India.  He  thought  also  that  it  was  the 
only  language  in  which  foreigners  at  all  events  could 
make  plain  to  Indians  the  meaning  of  the  Christian 
faith.  The  Company,  on  their  part,  had  in  mind  the 
multiplicity  of  languages  and  dialects  in  India  and  the 
necessity  of  a  common  medium  of  communication. 
They  hoped  that  an  English  education  would  tend  to 


Ii8  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

bind  the  higher  classes  to  England.  Duff's  schools 
were  filled  and  emptied  several  times  upon  the  issue 
of  his  insistence  upon  instruction  in  the  Christian 
religion.  The  government  schools  were  naturally  on 
the  basis  of  strict  religious  neutrality.  Nevertheless, 
Duff  and  his  compeers  exerted  the  greatest  influence 
upon  the  whole  government  system  of  education  in 
India  exactly  in  the  period  of  its  most  rapid  and  sig- 
nificant expansion.  Lord  Bentinck  officially  declared 
that  Duff's  schools  had  produced  unparalleled  results. 
Interestingly  enough  Duff  was  supported  in  his  views 
by  Ram  Mohan  Ray,  who  became  one  of  the  great 
leaders  of  reformed  Hinduism.  Duff,  broken  down, 
left  India  in  1863.  By  that  time  there  was  hardly  a 
great  denomination  of  Christians  in  India  which  had 
not  founded  colleges  practically  on  Duff's  lines. 

121.  The  first  American  missionaries. — The  first 
missionaries  of  the  American  Board,  Nott  and  Hall, 
also  went  to  India.  When  they  sailed  in  181 2  America 
was  at  war  with  England  and  the  East  India  Company 
had  not  yet  accepted  the  clause  in  its  charter  which 
permitted  missionary  work.  Rebuffed  at  Calcutta, 
the  Americans  determined  to  begin  their  work  in  Ceylon 
and  Bombay.  The  present  work  of  the  Board  in  the 
Indian  Empire  thus  dates  from  18 16.  Emissaries  of  this 
Board  were  at  Ahmednagar  after  1831  and  at  Madura 
in  1836.  The  withdrawal  of  a  part  of  the  Presbyterian 
constituencies  from  co-operation  with  the  American 
Board  in  1837  had  been  already  forecast  by  the  estab- 
lishment, under  the  Presbyterian  name,  of  American 
missions  in  the  United  Provinces  and  the  Punjab. 
Judson,  who  had  brought  into  being  the  Baptist  Soci- 


INDIA  119 

ety,  opened  the  work  in  Burma,  which  was  not  yet 
subject  to  Great  Britain.  He  was  a  man  who  might 
well  be  measured  by  the  standards  of  Carey.  On  the 
whole  the  American  work  in  India  in  the  period  before 
the  Mutiny  was  mainly  on  evangelistic  lines.  Yet 
most  of  the  American  missions  in  India  in  the  decade  of 
the  fifties  were  beginning  to  feel  strongly  those  tend- 
encies which  have  been  suggested  in  what  we  said  of 
Duff.  A  deputation  sent  out  to  visit  American  Board 
work  in  India  in  1855  had  reported  in  a  sense  adverse 
to  educational  work.  The  report  had  been  accepted 
at  home  only  after  two  years'  delay  and  not  without 
dissent.  Changes  were  soon  to  be  precipitated  by  the 
catastrophe  of  the  Mutiny,  the  so-called  Sepoy  Rebel- 
lion, which  altered  everything  in  India.  The  revolt 
led  to  the  revocation  of  the  Company's  charter  in  1858, 
to  the  taking  over  of  the  government  of  India  by  the 
crown  and  parliament,  and  to  the  readjustment  of  com- 
merce on  the  basis  of  free  trade.  The  revolution  thus 
constitutes  a  dividing  line  between  two  eras  in  the 
affairs  of  India. 

122.  Antecedents  of  the  Mutiny. — There  had  been 
since  18 13  significant  changes  in  the  charter  of  the 
Company,  all  of  them  in  the  direction  of  the  limitation 
of  its  arbitrary  power  and  the  increase  of  its  respon- 
sibility for  the  welfare  of  subject  peoples.  Lord  William 
Bentinck,  who  was  governor-general  from  1828  to  1835, 
was  the  first  of  a  succession  of  rulers  of  British  India  of 
a  character  and  benevolent  spirit  perhaps  as  high  as 
have  marked  the  administration  of  any  land.  In  the 
famous  words  of  Macaulay,  Bentinck  "  abolished  cruel 
rites,  he  effaced  humiliating  distinctions,  he  gave  liberty 


120  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

to  the  expression  of  public  opinion,  his  constant  study 
was  to  elevate  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of 
the  nations  committed  to  his  charge.' '  He  established 
a  just  and  effective  system  of  finance.  He  widened  the 
gates  by  which  Indians  could  enter  the  service  of  the 
Company.  His  abolition  of  suttee  and  his  suppression 
of  the  thugs,  based  as  they  were  upon  his  sense  of  what 
a  government  owed  in  the  fostering  of  mercy  and  pre- 
venting of  crime,  may  nevertheless  have  left  ground 
for  appeal  to  the  fanaticism  of  a  portion  of  the  people. 
In  his  time  the  Company  lost  its  monopoly  of  trade. 
Lord  Dalhousie,  governor  from  1848  to  1856,  was, 
again,  a  man  of  peace  but  was  compelled  to  fight  two 
wars,  one  for  the  pacification  of  Oudh  and  the  other  in 
Burma.  The  system  of  administration  carried  out  in 
the  conquered  Punjab  by  the  two  Lawrences  was  prob- 
ably one  of  the  most  difficult  and  most  successful 
pieces  of  work  of  the  sort  ever  performed  by  English- 
men. Dalhousie  founded  the  public  works  department 
and  paid  special  attention  to  roads  and  canals.  He 
promoted  steamer  communication  with  England  via 
the  Red  Sea  and  a  camel  route  at  the  Isthmus.  He 
introduced  cheap  postage  and  the  telegraph.  One 
would  have  said  that  the  causes  of  unrest  in  India 
were  diminishing  with  every  year.  The  things  which 
the  rebels  demanded  were  rapidly  being  granted.  The 
government  of  the  Company  had,  however,  been  at 
one  time  profoundly  selfish  and  unjust.  The  increase 
of  enlightenment  and  liberty  always  makes  for  unrest. 
Dethroned  princes  and  their  heirs  naturally  became 
leaders,  but  the  seat  of  the  rebellion  was  really  in  the 
lower  orders.     If  Bentinck's  policy  had  touched  their 


INDIA  121 

superstitions,  Dalhousie's  introduction  of  things  char- 
acteristically Western  stirred  their  prejudice.  The 
number  of  English  troops  in  India  had  been  reduced 
by  the  Crimean  War.  Russia  was  supposed  to  be 
winning  that  war.  A  little  thing  proved  an  occasion. 
New  rifles  served  to  the  Sepoys  used  cartridges  which 
required  to  be  bitten  by  the  teeth  in  loading.  The 
cartridges  were  greased  with  beef  tallow  or  hog's  fat. 
The  one  of  these  was  sacred  to  a  Hindu  and  the  other 
an  abomination  to  a  Moslem.  The  growth  of  mis- 
sionary enterprise  in  India  lent  color  to  the  notion  that 
here  was  a  deep-laid  plot  to  compel  the  native  army  to 
become  Christians  by  making  them  outcasts  from  their 
own  religions. 

123.  The  Mutiny  and  its  consequences. — In  April, 
1857,  part  of  a  cavalry  regiment  at  Meerut  refused  to 
accept  their  cartridges.  The  rest  of  the  troops  resented 
the  punishment  of  the  offenders  and  shot  their  officers, 
plundered  the  quarters,  and  streamed  off  to  Delhi. 
The  Delhi  troops  and  city  mob  proclaimed  a  revival 
of  the  Mogul  Empire.  There  were  but  three  thousand 
British  troops  at  Delhi.  They  were  driven  out,  but, 
reinforced  from  the  Punjab,  they  returned  and  cap- 
tured the  city  on  September  21.  Meantime,  Cawnpore 
under  Nana  Sahib  had  been  the  scene  of  an  indiscrimi- 
nate massacre  in  which  many  missionaries  with  many 
civil  servants  suffered.  Lucknow  was  another  center 
of  the  struggle.  At  the  beginning  of  the  siege  there 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence  lost  his  life.  The  Mutiny  was  in 
no  sense  a  national  uprising.  The  fighting  races  of 
the  Punjab  never  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  rebellion. 
The  Sikhs  and  Gurkhas  remained  faithful.     The  chief 


122  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

result  of  the  Mutiny  was  that  it  ended  the  rule  of  the 
Company.  There  have  been  considerable  additions  of 
territories  to  the  British  domain  since  the  Mutiny. 
The  most  significant  of  these  is  Burma.  Apart  from 
minor  wars,  however,  the  attention  of  rulers  and  people 
has  been  given  to  the  development  of  India  on  lines 
already  laid  down  before  the  rebellion.  Education  has 
been  carried  forward  on  a  great  scale,  not  merely  the 
higher  training,  but  also  education  in  the  vernaculars 
for  the  lower  orders  of  the  people.  The  expansion  of 
the  railway  systems  and  the  state  expenditure  for  irri- 
gation have  diminished  the  liability  of  famine.  The 
freedom  of  the  press  and  of  speech  is  that  accorded  in 
England.  An  Indian  National  Assembly  has  no  legis- 
lative power  but  greatly  influences  public  opinion.  The 
part  taken  by  India  in  the  present  war  shows  how  deep 
is  the  sense  of  what  Britain  has  done  for  India.  Equally 
it  makes  certain  that  Great  Britain  must  and  will  do 
more. 

124.  Expansion  of  mission  work  after  the  Mutiny. — 
Missions  had  suffered  severely  during  the  rebellion. 
Few  of  the  northern  stations  had  escaped  destruction. 
Many  native  Christians  had  laid  down  their  lives  rather 
than  deny  their  faith.  It  is  a  commonplace  in  the 
history  of  missions  that  nothing  so  stimulates  interest 
in  the  cause  as  does  an  experience  like  that  through 
which  the  missions  and  the  incipient  Indian  churches 
had  passed.  The  places  of  missionaries  who  had  lost 
their  lives  in  the  Mutiny  could  have  been  filled  ten 
times  over  the  moment  the  facts  were  known  in  England 
and  America.  Not  merely  did  all  the  societies  formerly 
engaged  in  this  work  resume   their  activities  on  an 


INDIA  123 

enlarged  scale,  but  new  communions  henceforth  included 
India  in  their  plans.  Among  these  was  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  of  North  America,  whose  most 
conspicuous  personalities  in  this  period  were  per- 
haps Bishop  Thoburn  and  his  sister  Isabella  Thoburn. 
Special  organizations  came  into  being  for  the  meeting 
of  specific  needs.  For  example,  the  great  expansion  of 
medical  work  done  under  missionary  auspices  in  India, 
as  indeed  in  all  other  fields,  has  come  since  the  decade 
of  the  fifties.  Dr.  John  Scudder,  a  missionary  physi- 
cian of  the  American  Board,  had  lived  in  Ceylon  after 
18 19  and  in  Madras  after  1836.  Yet  in  1849  ft  was 
said  that  there  were  but  forty  medical  missionaries  in 
the  world  and  only  six  of  these  in  India.  Similarly, 
work  for  women  supported  and  carried  out  by  women 
was  greatly  enlarged  in  scope  in  the  decade  of  the  six- 
ties. The  peculiarly  hard  position  and  hopeless  outlook 
of  certain  classes  of  women  in  India  had  even  earlier 
made  appeal  in  England.  A  society  for  work  in  the 
Zenanas  had  been  founded  in  London  in  1852.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  increasing  zeal  for  work  by  women 
on  behalf  of  women  corresponded  to  a  change  which 
was  rapidly  taking  place  in  regard  to  the  education  and 
general  status  of  women  in  England  and  America. 
Similarly,  certain  conditions  of  manufacturing  and  trade 
stimulated  in  extraordinary  degree  the  production  of 
newspapers,  journals,  and  books  in  Europe  and  America 
in  the  decade  of  the  sixties.  By  the  decade  of  the  seven- 
ties the  increase  in  the  variety  and  volume  of  printed 
matter  of  every  sort  issued  in  India  had  become  phe- 
nomenal. The  education  of  a  reading  public,  both  in 
the  vernaculars  and    in    English,   had  begun  to  tell. 


124  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Propaganda  for  every  cause,  native  and  foreign,  was 
being  conducted  in  print.  The  propaganda  for  Chris- 
tianity, both  in  the  vernacular  and  in  English,  followed 
the  example  thus  set.  A  devotional  and  also  a  contro- 
versial literature  appeared  for  which  India  before  the 
Mutiny  offered  no  parallel.  The  truth  was  that  India 
after  i860  was  in  the  great  stream  of  the  life  of  the 
world  as  it  had  never  been  before. 

125.  Sectarianism. — The  two  generations  which  have 
passed  since  the  Mutiny  have  laid  ever-increasing  em- 
phasis upon  the  needs  of  the  indigenous  church.  The 
work  of  propaganda  until  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  largely  evangelistic  as  it  had  been,  had 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  many  bodies  of  Christian 
believers  the  land  over.  These  had  given  full  evidence 
of  their  faith  and  fortitude  in  endurance  of  the  suffer- 
ings which  the  time  of  the  Mutiny  brought  upon  them. 
The  Christian  converts  were  as  yet  in  little  groups 
about  the  different  missions  from  which  they  had  heard 
the  message  of  the  gospel.  They  were  lamentably 
divided  on  the  lines  of  denominational  distinctions 
which  obtained  in  England  and  America.  Not  merely 
the  great  division  between  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
but  those  separating  Anglicans  from  either  Catholics  or 
Protestants  and  again  those  among  the  sects  and  sub- 
divisions of  Protestants  were  in  evidence.  Distinctions 
which  had  little  meaning  for  a  Hindu  divided  him  from 
fellow-Christians  to  whom  Christianity  meant  as  much 
as  to  himself.  The  docility  of  the  Indian  of  that  era, 
his  gentleness  and  tractability  toward  the  race  which 
dominated  India,  together  with  the  rather  uncom- 
promising sectarianism  which  obtained  in  England  and 


INDIA  125 

America  at  that  time  had  this  consequence.  There 
was  as  yet  no  strong  feeling  of  "India  for  the  Indians." 
There  was  no  democracy  in  India  as  yet.  The  churches 
were  in  an  extraordinary  degree  missionaries'  churches. 
Some  of  the  foreign  leaders  of  the  native  Christians 
showed  high  qualities  of  leadership.  It  would  be 
wrong  to  impugn  their  motives.  They  knew  no  other 
system.  Yet  as  we  now  see  clearly  this  was  only  a 
passing  phase.  No  wonder  that  practically  everywhere 
in  the  districts  of  the  rebellion  the  Indian  Christians 
were  taken  for  enemies  of  their  race.  They  were  held 
to  have  gone  over  completely  to  the  foreigner,  to  have 
turned  against  their  own  people.  Christianity  was  still 
exotic  in  India.  It  was  the  white  man's  religion,  in 
which  the  Indian  might  become  a  follower  but  never  a 
leader.  It  was  alien  in  form  of  doctrine,  in  ritual  of 
worship,  and  in  the  mode  of  life  which  it  enjoined. 

126.  Caste. — There  was  another  respect  in  which 
the  body  of  Christian  believers  in  India  was  sorely 
divided  and  is  more  or  less  divided  still.  This  was 
upon  the  lines  of  Hindu  castes.  Difficulties  which  the 
Jesuits  met  in  dealing  with  questions  of  caste  we  have 
already  spoken  of.  It  has  been  easier  for  Protestants 
to  find  fault  with  the  Jesuit  method  than  to  find  a 
method  of  their  own.  Certainly  they  never  escaped 
the  difficulty.  The  idea  that  all  men  are  alike  in  the 
sight  of  God  is  one  which  seems  to  us  near  to  the  heart 
of  the  gospel.  It  is  almost  the  last  conviction  possible 
to  the  mind  of  a  Hindu.  He  had  held  it  to  be  the 
very  evidence  of  the  consciousness  of  God  to  wish  to 
keep  away  from  the  company  of  the  large  majority  of 
his  fellow-men.     In  those  circumstances  the  Christian 


126  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

appeal,  when  true  to  itself,  has  often  practically  been 
an  appeal  to  the  lowest  of  the  people,  with  whom  no 
Hindu  of  caste  would  associate.  It  was  easy  to  quote 
Christ's  precept  and  example.  But  it  was  difficult  to 
build  up  an  indigenous  church  on  this  basis  with  power 
of  leadership  and  responsibility.  Here  was  an  addi- 
tional reason  why  the  management  of  the  churches  had 
been  so  largely  thrown  into  the  hands  of  missionaries. 
Yet  it  has  never  been  difficult  to  secure  a  hearing, 
interested  and  enthusiastic,  for  Christian  principles 
among  men  of  high  caste.  The  Hindu  is  profoundly 
religious.  He  sees  many  points  of  comparison  between 
the  Christian  doctrine  and  his  own.  He  has  attempted 
the  reformation  of  his  own  doctrine  on  the  basis  of 
principles  allied  to  or  identical  with  the  Christian.  He 
may  even  become  a  Christian  at  heart.  To  join  the 
Christian  communion,  however,  breaks  practically  every 
tie  in  his  life.  He  is  separated  from  his  family.  He 
may  be  driven  from  his  business.  He  is  ostracized 
more  completely  than  we  of  the  West  can  easily  con- 
ceive. Conviction  must  be  strong  indeed  before  a  man 
faces  this.  The  wonder  is  that  so  many  have  faced  it. 
Successful  propaganda  for  Christianity  within  a  given 
caste  may  dimimsh  the  loneliness  of  the  convert  from 
that  caste,  but  divides  the  Christian  church  within 
itself  on  the  old  caste  lines.  Mohammedanism  is  often 
said  to  have  been  successful  in  keeping  itself  free  from 
the  spirit  of  caste.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  Mohammedans  in  India  are  almost  always  such 
by  birth  and  inheritance  of  many  generations  since  the 
Mohammedan  conquests.  Accessions  to  Mohammed- 
anism by  conversion  are  now  as  good  as    unknown. 


INDIA  127 

Through  the  long  era  of  the  Mogul  Empire  the  leading 
persons  of  many  parts  of  India  were  Mohammedans. 
To  a  certain  extent  it  is  an  illusion  to  say  that  the 
Mohammedans  do  not  know  caste.  They  are  a  caste 
in  the  sense  of  being  a  religious  group  by  themselves. 

127.  Language. — Moreover,  as  if  in  the  ecclesias- 
ticism  of  foreigners  and  in  the  caste  of  the  Indians 
there  were  not  difficulties  enough  in  the  way  of  a  united 
and  national  Indian  Christian  constituency,  there  are 
added  difficulties  which  arise  out  of  the  differences  in 
language  and  dialect.  These  remind  us  of  the  old  racial 
strata,  which  in  the  history  of  India  have  lain  the  one 
over  the  other  and  formed  social  conditions  which  have 
banned  unnumbered  generations  practically  to  the  same 
spot.  India  is  not  a  nation.  It  is  made  up  of  at 
least  three  major  races  which  have  amalgamated  very 
little.  India  has  two  chief  families  of  languages  which 
present  more  than  a  hundred  dialects,  of  which  at 
least  thirty  are  spoken  by  more  than  a  million  persons 
each.  To  this  day  the  appeal  of  Christianity  is  in 
large  measure  to  the  lower  castes  and  simpler  people. 
This  is  exactly  the  area  of  the  population  in  which  the 
language  difficulty  is  at  its  greatest.  The  higher  classes 
may  speak  English  and  even  read  Sanskrit.  The  lower 
orders  know  only  their  own  dialect.  Preaching  must  be 
done  in  the  vernacular.  Rudimentary  schools  must  fur- 
nish instruction  in  the  dialect.  Industrial  education 
must  be  conducted  in  the  dialect.  A  Christian  literature 
of  edification  and  devotion  must  be  created  in  the  dialect. 
This  fact  again  makes  the  sense  of  unity  and  effective- 
ness in  the  Indian  Christian  church  very  hard  to  attain. 
All  general  efforts  of  Indian  Christians  are  apt  to  be 


128  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

carried  on  through  the  medium  of  English.     All  general 
expressions  are  set  forth  in  a  foreign  tongue. 

128.  The  indigenous  church. — Nevertheless,  in  a 
degree  which  is  amazing  when  one  considers  the  diffi- 
culties, there  is  growing  up  that  which  may  fairly  be 
called  an  Indian  Christendom.  There  is  an  indigenous 
Christianity  which  by  direct  and  indirect  influence 
brings  Christian  ideas  and  principles  into  contact  with 
every  area  of  life.  There  has  been  continued  and 
magnanimous  effort  of  more  enlightened  missionaries 
to  do  away  with  the  denominational  obstacles.  The 
word  " devolution"  has  been  applied  to  the  movement 
which  is  now  going  on  in  the  Indian  church.  It  is  the 
effort  to  reverse  the  process  by  which  that  church  was 
evolved  under  the  hand  of  missionaries  and  to  turn 
it  over  to  the  Indians  themselves.  All  sacrifices  which 
missionaries  and  sects,  even  proud  established  churches, 
must  make  in  this  regard  are  as  nothing  compared 
with  the  sacrifices  which  are  made  by  Indians  of  higher 
station,  judges  in  the  courts,  advocates  at  the  bar, 
officers  high  in  civil  service,  editors,  merchants,  men 
free  to  devote  themselves  to  philanthropy  and  reform, 
when  these  come  out  openly  as  members  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches  and  take  leading  place  in  the  Christian 
movement  in  this  land.  Such  men  increase  in  number 
every  year.  Exactly  at  the  highest  levels  of  society 
and  among  men  most  seriously  minded  the  number 
increases  also  of  those  who  are  less  or  more  convinced 
of  certain  Christian  truths  but  who  for  any  one  of 
many  reasons  are  not  likely  ever  to  take  the  step  of 
outward  and  formal  association  with  the  Christian  insti- 
tution as  such.     On  the  other  hand,   it  is  from  this 


INDIA  129 

same  class  that  the  largest  number  of  recruits  comes 
for  the  ranks  of  those  who  as  the  result  of  their  educa- 
tion, of  their  tastes  and  occupations,  have  indeed  lost 
hold  upon  their  ancestral  faith  but  have  no  disposition 
to  put  another  in  the  place. 

129.  The  Christian  movement. — In  India,  as  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  organized  Christianity,  the  church, 
is  but  the  nucleus  of  the  Christian  movement,  the 
center  of  the  radiation  of  an  influence  of  the  spirit  of 
Christ  which  manifests  itself  far  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  those  who  are  willing  to  be  called  by  the  Christian 
name.  The  number  of  converts  which  the  various 
churches  can  show,  the  additions  to  this  number  which 
each  year  records,  have  therefore  no  more  significance 
in  India  than  in  America  and  no  less.  Meantime  a 
phenomenon  has  been  witnessed  in  South  India  in 
comparatively  recent  years  which  seems  most  strange 
when  one  reflects  upon  the  history  and  principles  of 
Protestant  missions.  This  is  the  phenomenon  of  mass 
movements  toward  Christianity.  Whole  villages  come 
over  en  masse  and  are  proclaimed  by  the  village  elders 
as  Christian  villages.  This  movement,  in  so  far  as  we 
are  able  to  imagine  how  it  presents  itself  to  the  native 
mind,  is  probably  connected  with  the  breaking  down  of 
caste,  a  process  which  is  going  on  in  India  from  many 
other  causes  than  that  of  religious  propaganda.  The 
village  wishes  to  organize  its  civil  and  economic  life 
on  the  basis  which  it  observes  in  Christian  society. 
How  far  such  a  state  of  things  is  from  being  equivalent 
to  the  conversion  of  every  individual  in  the  community 
no  one  needs  to  be  told.  How  great  an  obligation  is 
thus  imposed  upon  a  neighboring  mission  if  it  accepts 


130  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  invitation  to  send  missionaries  to  organize  Chris- 
tian life  in  the  community  is  evident.  How  long  will 
it  be  before  these  people  ought  to  be  counted  for  the 
Christian  church,  unless  we  are  to  lose  all  sense  of  what 
the  Christian  church  is?  The  Roman  Catholics  have 
generally  been  in  favor  of  such  movements,  so  strong 
is  the  principle  of  Christian  nurture  with  them.  Prot- 
estants have  generally  resisted  mass  movements  as  long 
as  they  could.  They  have,  however,  of  late  sometimes 
felt  they  would  be  ashamed  if  they  were  not  able  to 
use  such  an  opportunity  for  a  real  Christian  end.  The 
government  census  has  no  way  of  knowing  anything 
but  the  number  of  those  who  profess  the  Christian 
faith  within  the  religious  organizations.  That  number 
is  assuredly  in  some  cases  less  than  the  number  of  those 
who  would  be  judged  by  a  devoted  missionary  as 
entitled  to  bear  the  Christian  name.  In  other  cases 
also  it  is  greater.  Premising  this,  the  figures  are 
certainly  interesting.  In  the  decade  from  1901  to  191 1 
the  population  of  India  increased  6.4  per  cent.  The 
Indian  Christians,  Roman,  Anglican,  and  Protestant, 
increased  in  the  same  decade  34.2  per  cent,  or  five 
times  as  fast  as  the  population  of  British  India.  In 
no  decade  of  the  last  four  has  the  increase  been  less 
than  22  per  cent.  In  191 1  the  total  number  of  church 
members,  not  counting  Europeans,  was  3,574,770,  or 
one  in  every  eighty-six  of  the  population. 

130.  Missions  and  the  industrial  situation;  govern- 
ment co-operation. — The  missions  have  had  at  all  times 
a  certain  proportion  of  their  adherents  who  had  lost 
their  means  of  livelihood  along  with  their  separation 
from  caste.     The  need  of  developing  new  modes  of 


INDIA  131 

employment  and  in  some  way  providing  for  the  sub- 
division of  labor  within  the  Christian  community  thus 
made  itself  felt.  Attention  would  early  have  been 
turned  to  industrial  education  had  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  such  education  been  developed  in  Europe  or 
America  in  the  first  half-century  of  expanding  mission 
work  in  India.  As  a  matter  of  fact  even  the  name 
"industrial  education"  is  relatively  a  modern  one. 
When  the  minds  of  missionaries  and  of  government 
officials  in  the  old  days  dwelt  upon  the  need  of  education 
in  India  they  thought  of  the  old-fashioned  education 
of  the  few  for  leadership.  The  schools  and  colleges 
established  by  both  those  agencies  were  directed  to  the 
end  of  the  development  of  Indian  leadership  in  state 
and  church.  Yet  when  the  evolution  of  industrial 
education  came  the  British  government  in  India  felt 
even  more  strongly  than  did  the  missionaries  that  there 
was  a  vast  portion  of  the  population  of  India  which 
needed  to  be  helped  in  this  way.  There  are  few  coun- 
tries in  the  world  so  poor  as  India.  One  reason  at 
least  of  this  dire  poverty  is  the  uniformity  of  employ- 
ment. Nine-tenths  of  the  population  live  by  agricul- 
ture and  that  an  agriculture  of  the  most  primitive  sort. 
There  are  or  were  until  very  recently  few  large  cities 
in  India,  only  innumerable  villages  with  their  tracts 
of  minutely  subdivided  cultivable  land  about  them. 
Agriculture  itself  needed  improvement  by  the  applica- 
tion of  modern  scientific  methods  and  machinery.  The 
resources  of  India  would  justify  a  high  development 
of  industrial  and  commercial  life.  The  Indian  peoples 
have  skill  and  taste  as  artisans.  Heretofore  they  have 
almost  always  been  exploited  by  outsiders  in  marketing 


132  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

their  commodities.  The  caste  system  had  had  effect 
in  preventing  choice  and  mobility  in  employment. 
Christianity  represented  the  first  great  breach  in  that 
system  and  contributed  much  to  this  freedom  and  mobil- 
ity. Government  has  not  been  slow  to  seize  upon  those 
advantages.  Confronted  by  the  necessity  of  the  devel- 
opment of  industrial  education  and  change  of  the  mode 
of  life  of  large  strata  of  the  population,  it  quickly  real- 
ized that  that  task  far  outwent  its  powers.  It  availed 
itself  of  the  help  of  the  beginnings  which  the  missions 
had  often  made.  It  availed  itself  of  the  devoted  staff 
which  the  missions  furnished.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
missions  were  enabled  thus  in  co-operation  with  the 
government  to  do  their  work  on  a  scale  which  they  never 
could  have  afforded.  Industrial  education  is  relatively 
expensive.  It  leads  to  complications  in  trade  which 
missions  do  well  to  avoid.  Government  subsidizes 
mission  schools  of  this  sort  up  to  a  large  percentage  of 
their  cost.  The  mission  industrial  schools  on  their 
part  gain  the  advantage  of  government  inspection  and 
standard.  Certain  classes,  and  it  may  be  of  interest 
to  add  certain  criminal  classes,  have  been  set  apart 
to  the  sole  care  of  missions  in  this  regard. 

131.  Missions  and  education. — The  remarks  thus 
made  concerning  industrial  education  lead  on  to  that 
which  is  to  be  said  concerning  education  in  general  in 
India.  Government  under  the  Company  actually  an- 
ticipated missions  in  the  establishment  of  institutions  of 
higher  learning,  and  there  was  every  reason  why  they 
should,  so  soon  as  they  conceived  it  to  be  their  duty 
to  do  anything  for  Indians  at  all.  When  they  came  to 
look  forward  to  participation  of  Indians  in  the  govern- 


INDIA  133 

ment  it  was  clear  that  some  Indians  must  be  trained 
for  that  participation.  The  Company  had  abundant 
means  for  such  work.  The  missions,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  at  the  first  not  only  little  or  no  means  for  such 
tasks,  but  they  were  then  so  nearly  limited  to  the  lowest 
strata  of  society  that  it  required  the  genuine  faith  of 
educated  men  to  look  forward  to  the  leadership  of  an 
educated  ministry  in  the  Christian  community.  There 
are  now  nineteen  institutions  connected  with  Protestant 
societies  which  carry  their  students  up  to  the  Bache- 
lor's degree.  Eleven  of  them  provide  work  in  addition 
for  those  seeking  the  Master's  degree  or  professional 
courses.  They  are  all  subject  to  government  super- 
vision as  to  the  giving  of  degrees.  They  have  about 
five  thousand  students.  The  five  great  government 
universities,  those  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  the 
Punjab,  and  Allahabad,  united  as  one  examining  board, 
have  approximately  thirty  thousand  students.  Some 
of  those,  like  Calcutta,  go  back  to  foundations  made 
by  officers  under  the  Company  at  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  A  new  university  under  Hindu  aus- 
pices is  being  established  at  Benares.  A  college 
founded  and  sustained  by  Mohammedans  exists  at 
Aligarh.  Both  of  these  last  receive  grants  in  aid  from 
the  government,  coming  thus  under  government  inspec- 
tion. Practically  all  of  the  Christian  colleges  men- 
tioned above  receive  such  grants  in  aid  and  are  under 
such  inspection.  Most  of  them  have  the  rank  of 
affiliated  colleges  of  one  or  another  of  the  universities. 
Secondary  education  in  India  was  never  thoroughly 
taken  in  hand  by  the  government  until  1854.  Prompted 
then  by  the  famous  educational  dispatch  of  Sir  Charles 


134  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Wood,  the  rulers  sought  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a 
government  school  system  on  a  grand  scale.  Not  until 
1882  did  the  elementary  schools  feel  the  full  impetus 
of  the  educational  movement.  To  this  day  only  32.8 
per  cent  of  the  boys  of  school  age  in  British  India 
attend  school,  and  only  5 . 9  per  cent  of  the  girls.  With- 
in these  areas  the  missions  are  far  in  advance  of  the 
government.  Their  school  system  is  a  generation  older. 
The  proportion  of  the  children  in  the  Christian  com- 
munities who  attend  schools  of  these  grades  is  far 
higher.  Until  quite  recently  the  only  schools  for 
women  were  mission  schools.  To  this  day,  despite 
the  excellency  of  the  government  schools  in  which 
strict  religious  neutrality  prevails,  and  despite  the 
founding  of  private  schools  for  both  sexes  and  all  classes 
by  generous  donors  eager  for  their  own  faiths,  many 
pupils  from  non-Christian  families  attend  the  mission 
schools.  They  acknowledge  that  what  they  seek  is  the 
moral  life  and  religious  atmosphere  of  these  schools. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  girls'  schools.  Schools 
established  by  missions  for  defectives,  as  for  example 
the  blind,  are  still  far  in  advance  of  the  government 
schools. 

132.  Philanthropy  and  reform. — This  last  phrase  leads 
us  to  consider  the  immense  increase  in  India  within  the 
last  two  generations  of  organizations  and  agencies  for 
the  prosecution  of  every  sort  of  charity,  philanthropy, 
and  reform.  In  the  order  of  time  at  which  they  have 
come  into  being  these  institutions  may  be  classified  as 
mission  activities,  efforts  of  well-disposed  foreigners, 
government  agencies,  finally  and  of  late  on  a  great 
scale  the  activities  of  Indians  themselves.     Indians  of 


INDIA  135 

every  race  and  every  faith  have  come  to  vie  with  one 
another  in  the  alleviation  of  misery  and  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  causes  of  distress  rife  in  a  land  of  such 
dense  population  and  of  such  incredible  poverty.  Mis- 
sions have  turned  over  no  small  part  of  the  work  of 
this  sort  inaugurated  by  them  to  the  government. 
Reforms  which  missionaries  once  stood  alone  in  demand- 
ing are  now  far  better  advocated  by  representatives  of 
the  Indian  peoples  themselves.  How  great  a  change 
this  cult  of  mercy  in  modern  India  constitutes  one 
may  realize  who  will  read  the  literature  of  India  before 
the  Mutiny.  There  has  been  large  development  in 
this  direction  during  the  same  years  in  Europe  and 
America.  No  one  can  ever  have  failed  to  feel  the  con- 
trast between  the  gentleness  of  the  Indian  mind  and  the 
indifference  to  suffering  which  certainly  characterized 
Indian  life  until  comparatively  recent  years.  A  view 
fundamental  to  Buddhism  and  significant  even  for 
Hinduism,  the  view  of  the  worthlessness  of  life  and  the 
meaninglessness  of  the  world,  had  much  to  do  with 
this.  Life  itself  was  so  great  an  evil  that  all  other 
evils  were  small  by  comparison.  To  prolong  life  might 
only  be  to  enhance  misery.  To  alleviate  suffering  might 
be  only  to  increase  it  in  the  end.  Our  Western  World 
had  certainly  gone  to  absurd  lengths  in  the  prosperous 
years  before  the  war  in  its  sensitiveness  to  suffering. 
The  Hindu  had  always  seen  these  relations  differently. 
It  is  one  of  the  chief  titles  to  praise  of  missions  in  India 
that  they  have  largely  changed  the  atmosphere  of  life 
in  India  in  respect  of  the  valuation  set  upon  man  as 
man  and  the  hopeful  and  joyful  estimate  of  the  worth 
of  life. 


136  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

133.  Reform  and  revival  of  Hindu  religions. — Such 
changes  of  view  as  those  which  have  been  touched  upon 
in  the  last  paragraph,  changes  in  respect  of  the  valua- 
tion of  man's  life,  amount  to  an  alteration  in  the  view 
of  religion  itself.  They  assign  a  different  function  to 
religion.  They  demand  a  religion  which  can  fulfil  that 
function.  It  is  certain  that  these  changes  are  passing 
over  Hindu  religion.  Buddhism,  which  was  the  great- 
est of  all  the  reforms  of  Hinduism,  has  in  India  long 
since  been  largely  reabsorbed  into  Hinduism.  Its 
adherents  are  far  more  numerous,  the  faith  itself  is 
far  more  vital,  in  Japan  or  even  in  China,  than  in 
India.  Mohammedanism,  the  one  great  religion  which 
had  invaded  India  before  the  coming  of  Christianity, 
is  far  more  accessible  to  reform  than  is  Mohammedan- 
ism anywhere  else  in  the  world.  Zoroastrianism  has 
never  been  the  religion  of  any  but  an  interesting  group 
who  have  always  remained  complete  foreigners  in 
India.  The  nature-religions,  like  Jainism,  must  share 
the  fate  of  all  the  nature-religions  when  these  come 
into  conflict  with  the  view  of  nature  which  modern 
education  necessarily  imparts.  ■  There  remains  the 
colossal  fact  of  Hinduism.  Loyal  adherents  of  Hin- 
duism are  saying  about  it  some  one  and  some  another 
of  the  things  which  we  have  heard  said  about  Christianity 
at  various  times  in  our  own  lands.  It  is  quite  touching 
to  hear  in  the  impassioned  address  of  Hindu  religious 
reformers  or  to  read  in  the  eloquent  literature  of  the 
reforming  movements  that  Hinduism  has  been  verily 
guilty  in  that,  absorbed  in  its  doctrines  about  God, 
it  has  neglected  duties  concerning  men.  It  has  aban- 
doned the  problem  of  the  world.     It  has  not  seen  that 


INDIA  137 

God  should  be  worshiped,  not  in  rapt  contemplation  or 
by  asceticism  or  in  rites  and  ceremonies,  but  in  loving 
service  to  our  fellow-men.  It  is  suggestive  to  hear 
Hindus  of  quickened  conscience  and  enthusiasm  rail 
at  the  tendency  so  natural  to  the  Indian  mind  to  give 
itself  up  to  reasoning  about  the  transcendent,  to  wander 
off  into  endless  refinements  of  metaphysics,  to  turn  reli- 
gion into  dogma  and  faith  into  pure  intellectualism.  It 
is  illuminating  to  hear  the  assault  which  enlightened 
Hindus  make  upon  the  power  and  selfishness  of  their 
priests,  the  degeneration  of  religion  into  magic,  and 
the  readiness  of  the  supposed  representatives  of  God 
to  turn  to  their  own  sordid  advantage  the  superstitions 
and  fears  of  men.  These  are  the  notes  of  the  reforming 
religious  movement  as  a  popular  movement,  but  this 
is  the  least  characteristically  Indian  side  of  it.  Far 
more  characteristic  is  that  genuinely  intellectual  move- 
ment so  essentially  aristocratic  in  its  manner,  eclectic 
in  its  method,  inner  and  spiritual  in  its  purposes,  which 
has  given  birth  to  the  Brahma  Samaj,  the  Arya  Samaj, 
and  the  various  doctrinal  reinterpretations  of  Hindu- 
ism. It  is  the  attempt  to  make  a  synthesis  of  the  best 
points  of  many  religions.  This  attempt  has  absorbed 
not  a  little  of  India's  best  religious  thought  in  the  last 
two  generations.  So  pre-eminently  are  these  systems 
of  religious  thought  creations  of  the  mind,  so  completely 
are  they  the  religious  preoccupations  of  that  part  of 
the  world  which  lives  to  think,  that  one  never  wonders 
that  not  one  of  them  has  progressed  far  beyond  the 
circle  of  the  intellectuals.  Yet  few  religious  movements 
have  ever  been  launched  by  one  to  whom  we  are  drawn 
by  a  more  instinctive  respect  than  that  which  we  feel 

t 


138  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

for  Ram  Mohan  Ray.  After  a  life  of  quest  among  all 
the  religions  which  he  knew  and  as  the  result  of  thought 
and  study  and  conference  with  friends,  he  taught  that 
there  is  only  one  God,  who  is  the  father  of  the  spirits 
of  all  men,  that  in  all  religious  movements  men  are 
blindly  seeking  after  this  one  God.  The  goal  in  religion 
is  that  all  men  should  agree  in  spiritual  worship  and 
join  in  the  service  of  their  fellow-men.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  Brahma  Samaj,  which  dates  from  1828. 
After  ninety  years  it  is,  however,  a  fair  question  whether 
this  samaj,  or  any  or  all  of  the  others  which  have  split 
off  from  it,  are  in  the  way  of  becoming  centers  of  the 
religious  life  and  power  which  reformed  and  reforming 
Indian  religion  needs.  Certainly,  however,  such  move- 
ments show  the  openness  of  the  Indian  mind  to  the 
impression  of  much  that  has  been  contended  for  by  the 
teachers  of  Christianity. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
JAPAN 


CHAPTER  VIII 

JAPAN 

134.  Japan 

135.  Portuguese  trade;  Roman  missions;  Xavier 

136.  Nobunaga  and  the  Jesuits 

137.  The  flourishing  period  of  the  Roman  missions 

138.  The  persecution 

139.  The  closing  of  Japan 

140.  The  opening  of  Japan 

141.  Relation  to  other  nations 

142.  Resumption  of  Roman  missions 

143.  Beginnings  of  Protestant  missions 

144.  Neesima 

145.  Japan  in  the  new  era 

146.  Action  and  reaction 

147.  The  Christian  movement 

148.  Attitude  of  government 

149.  Medical  work 

150.  General  philanthropy 

151.  The  reaction:  causes 

152.  The  reaction:  effects 

153.  The  Imperial  Rescript 

154.  The  case  of  the  Doshisha 

155.  Growth  of  the  churches 

156.  Conference  of  religions  in  191 2 


CHAPTERVIII 
JAPAN 

134.  Japan. — If  we  speak  next  of  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  Japan  it  is  because  this  movement  pre- 
sents in  its  history  striking  contrasts  with  that  which  we 
have  observed  in  the  case  of  India.  A  warlike  popula- 
tion, comparatively  small  until  recent  years,  homogene- 
ous in  race  and  language,  has  from  time  immemorial 
resisted  foreign  conquest.  Its  people  chose  freely  such 
elements  as  they  found  useful  in  the  Chinese  civilization 
yet  followed  the  line  of  their  own  development.  They 
have  illustrated  almost  to  our  own  day  the  advantage 
of  a  leadership  inherited  from  a  feudal  age.  Eager  for 
trade  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  Eastern  World 
to  European  commerce  they  later  turned  against  the 
strangers  and  sought  to  keep  their  commerce  in  their 
own  hands.  Hospitable  toward  faiths  other  than  their 
native  Shinto  they  yielded  great  influence  to  Confucian- 
ism in  at  least  two  periods  of  their  history.  They 
accorded  to  Buddhism  a  place  in  which  this  missionary 
religion  achieved  a  high  development.  They  admitted 
Christianity  with  the  Jesuits  and  then,  affronted  by  the 
association  of  its  representatives  with  political  purposes, 
they  put  the  European  religion  under  the  ban.  They 
visited  Christians,  both  foreign  and  native,  with  bitter 
persecution  and  prevented  all  further  propaganda  until 
1865.  Yet  in  the  brief  interval  since  Perry's  treaty  in 
1854  Japan  has  in  the  largest  way  adopted  fundamental 
principles  of  Western  civilization.     It  has  become  a 

141 


142  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

military  and  naval  power  of  the  first  order,  a  commercial 
and  industrial  nation  of  the  foremost  rank.  It  maintains 
Western  education  at  the  highest  level.  Since  the  Edict 
of  Toleration  in  1872  Japan  has  gone  farther  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  naturalization  and  the  nationalization  of 
Christianity  within  limited  groups  from  all  classes  of 
society  than  has  any  other  nation  in  which  the  Christian 
propaganda  has  been  conducted. 

135.  Portuguese  trade;  Roman  missions;  Xavier. — 
In  the  widest  sweep  of  the  Golden  Horde  toward  the 
East  the  Tatars  failed  to  effect  a  landing  upon  Japanese 
shores.  This  was  in  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan,  when  the 
Tatars  had  stamped  their  impress  upon  China,  India,  the 
present  Ottoman  Empire,  and  even  Russia,  which  is  not 
altogether  effaced  to  this  day.  To  Europeans,  Japan  had 
existed  in  a  kind  of  legend  since  the  time  of  Marco 
Polo.  A  junk  carrying  three  Portuguese  sailing  out  of 
Macao  for  Siam  was  blown  from  her  course  and  made  the 
island  of  Tanegashima  on  the  coast  of  the  province  of 
Satsuma  in  1542.  The  news  thus  brought  to  Goa  in- 
spired the  Portuguese  to  follow  up  the  new  opening  for 
commerce.  Francis  Xavier  was  persuaded  to  go  to 
Japan.  He  is  said  to  have  yielded  to  the  urgency  of  a 
Japanese  refugee  whose  name  appears  in  Xavier's  letters 
as  Angiro.  This  Japanese  refugee  spoke  Portuguese 
and  afterward  received  the  name  of  Paul  of  the  Holy 
Faith.  Xavier  went  in  a  Chinese  junk  from  Malacca 
and  landed  at  Kagoshima.  Kindly  received  by  the  local 
daimio  he  prepared,  with  the  aid  of  Paul,  an  account  of 
the  principal  Christian  doctrines.  Later  he  went  with 
two  Jesuit  brothers  to  Hirado  and  Kyoto.  In  1551  he 
returned  to  India,  having  been  in  Japan  a  little  more  than 


JAPAN  143 

two  years.  In  Goa  he  selected  missionaries  to  be  sent 
to  Japan.  He  himself  had  set  his  heart  upon  visiting 
China.  He  reached  only  the  island  of  Changchuen, 
which  appears  in  Portuguese  documents  as  San  Chian 
and  St.  John.  There  Xavier  died  of  fever  in  Novem- 
ber, 1552,  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

136.  Nobunaga  and  the  Jesuits. — For  a  time  Funai 
and  Yamaguchi  remained  the  centers  of  Christian  work. 
The  governor  of  the  latter  place  received  baptism.  Tor- 
res and  Fernandez,  companions  of  Xavier,  had  remained 
behind.  Gago  and  Alcaceva  came  from  India  to  rein- 
force the  station.  The  opposition  of  the  Buddhist 
monks,  who  were  often  warriors,  was  natural.  The 
position  of  converts  was  made  difficult  by  their  absolute 
allegiance  to  their  overlords.  The  country  was  in 
almost  constant  civil  war.  The  great  political  enemy 
of  the  Buddhist  party,  Nobunaga,  took  the  side  of  the 
Christians.  He  was  far  from  being  a  Christian  convert, 
yet  he  seems  to  have  acted  in  a  spirit  of  tolerance  as  well 
as  from  what  he  took  to  be  political  expediency.  In  the 
period  of  his  successes  Christianity  flourished  in  an 
amazing  degree.  The  Christian  cause  was  drawn  almost 
from  the  first  into  the  vortex  of  the  civil  struggle  through 
which  Japan  at  the  time  of  the  decadence  of  the  power 
of  the  mikado  and  the  rise  of  that  of  the  shogun  was 
passing.  There  was  nothing  in  the  Jesuit  theory  or 
practice  then  rapidly  developing  in  Europe  to  make  its 
representatives  in  the  East  wary  of  entering  upon  such 
alliances.  The  society  sought  persons  of  high  station. 
The  end  of  the  matter  was  that  the  Christian  cause  in 
Japan,  which  would  in  any  case  have  been  suspect  in  the 
eyes  of  a  people  of  intense  anti-foreign  feeling,  met  also 


144  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

t 

the  obloquy  of  having  taken  sides  in  Japanese  domestic 
questions.  That  the  movement  should  have  had  for 
seventy-five  years  the  success  which  it  did  have  is  even 
more  remarkable  than  the  fact  that  at  the  end  of  that 
period  it  was  suppressed  as  ruthlessly  as  it  was. 

137.  The  flourishing  period  of  the  Roman  missions. — 
This  is  not  to  say  that  there  was  not  true  religious  work 
of  a  high  order  done  in  the  Roman  missions  in  the  time 
of  which  we  speak.  There  were  converts  to  Christianity 
who  were  such  out  of  inner  conviction  and  in  face  of 
great  difficulties.  There  was  no  such  obstacle  to  the 
advance  of  Christianity  as  was  offered  by  caste  in  India. 
There  was,  however,  the  resistance  of  a  highly  organized 
feudal  society  in  which  loyalty  was  of  supreme  impor- 
tance. Shinto  was  intrenched  as  the  background  of 
popular  superstitions  relating  to  nature  and  also  as 
connected  with  the  veneration  of  ancestors  and  in  the 
last  analysis  with  homage  to  the  ruler.  Buddhism  had 
long  been  associated  with  the  aristocracy  and  Confucian- 
ism was  at  least  the  prevailing  philosophy.  Yet  Chris- 
tianity had  access  to  all  classes  of  society  and  won  its 
leaders  from  all  classes.  In  such  circumstances  it 
would  be  strange  if  we  did  not  hear  of  cases  of  mass  con- 
version and  also  of  enforced  conversions.  It  is  in  such  a 
connection  that  we  first  learn  of  Sumitada  and  the 
Nagasaki  Christian  community,  famous  in  later  history. 
Sumitada,  announcing  that  he  had  been  aided  to  his 
victories  by  the  Christian  God,  banished  all  non- 
Christians  from  Nagasaki.  Nobunaga  was  succeeded 
in  1582  by  his  lieutenant,  Hideyoshi,  who  brought  sixty- 
six  provinces  of  the  empire  under  his  sway.  Great  was 
the  question  whether  Hideyoshi  would  favor  the  Chris- 


JAPAN  145 

tians.  At  the  first  he  followed  in  Nobunaga's  steps.  In 
1587,  however,  he  turned  against  the  Christians,  issuing 
an  edict  which  ordered  all  foreign  priests  to  quit  Japan 
within  twenty  days.  Some  Jesuits  left  Japan,  but 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  came  from  Manila  to  take 
their  place.  The  Spaniards  were  sharp  rivals  of  the 
Portuguese  for  Japanese  trade.  The  feuds  of  the  priests 
and  merchants  among  themselves  still  further  angered 
Hideyoshi.  Twenty-six  Christians  were  crucified  at 
Nagasaki,  six  Spanish  Franciscans  being  of  the  number, 
besides  three  Japanese  Jesuits  and  seventeen  Japanese 
Christians  of  the  laity. 

138.  The  persecution. — In  1598  Hideyoshi  died  and 
his  authority  passed  into  the  hands  of  Iyeyasu,  the  first 
Tokugawa  shogun.  Thirty  years  later,  in  1637,  the 
Tokugawa  potentates  had  apparently  exterminated 
Christianity  in  Japan  and  had  committed  their  country 
to  a  policy  of  isolation  which  continued  unbroken  until 
1853,  or  for  a  period  of  two  hundred  and  sixteen  years. 
Yet  in  the  early  years  no  one  would  have  predicted  this 
issue.  Iyeyasu  favored  the  coming  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  traders,  meaning  probably  to  play  them  off 
against  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish.  An  Englishman, 
William  Adams,  came  to  Funai  as  the  pilot  of  a  Dutch 
ship  and  was  warmly  received  by  the  Shogun.  He 
became  master-shipbuilder  to  the  government  and  diplo- 
matic agent  with  traders  of  all  nationalities.  He  was 
for  twenty  years  the  Shogun's  trusted  friend.  The 
Shogun's  suspicions  were  aroused  by  a  Spanish  attempt 
to  survey  the  coast.  When  five  native  converts  were 
burned  at  the  stake  at  Nagasaki  for  refusing  to  recant, 
the  crowd  gathered  up  portions  of  their  bones  as  holy 


146  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

relics.  An  edict  of  16 14  ordered  that  all  missionaries 
should  be  deported,  all  churches  should  be  burned,  and 
all  converts  should  abjure  on  pain  of  death.  The  edict 
was  not  rigidly  enforced.  In  1623,  however,  under 
Iyemitsu  there  were  new  edicts  and  consistent  persecu- 
tion began.  Highest  fortitude  was  shown  on  the  part  of 
individuals  and  by  masses  of  the  Japanese  Christians. 
In  1637  there  broke  out  a  rebellion,  commonly  known  as 
the  Christian  Revolt  of  Shimbara.  Shimbara  is  a  prom- 
ontory near  Nagasaki.  In  1638  the  whole  Christian 
body  of  the  neighborhood,  some  say  twenty  thousand 
fighting  men  with  seventeen  thousand  women  and  chil- 
dren, took  possession  of  the  dilapidated  fortress  of  Hara. 
Here  the  insurgents  successfully  maintained  themselves 
for  three  months.  Then  those  whom  fire  and  famine  had 
left  were  put  to  the  sword.  After  1872,  under  the  Edict 
of  Toleration,  when  French  priests  were  allowed  to  search 
the  region  about  Nagasaki  for  those  with  whom  the 
old  tradition  survived,  they  are  said  to  have  found  more 
than  eight  thousand  persons  who  were  prepared  to  call 
themselves  Christians.  Yet  Christianity  had  been  a 
religion  forbidden  upon  pain  of  death  for  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years. 

139.  The  closing  of  Japan. — The  Japanese  felt  that 
the  Portuguese  had  instigated  the  Shimbara  rebellion. 
An  edict  was  issued  proclaiming  that  thenceforth  any 
Portuguese  ship  coming  to  Japan  would  be  burned, 
together  with  her  cargo,  and  her  crew  would  be  executed. 
The  Colony  at  Macao  in  1640  sent  four  aged  men,  most 
respected  citizens,  as  duly  appointed  ambassadors  and 
bearing  rich  gifts  to  see  if  the  decree  could  not  be  altered. 
The  ambassadors  and  fifty-seven  of  their  following  were 


JAPAN  147 

beheaded,  thirteen  being  reserved  to  be  sent  back  to 
Macao  to  tell  the  tale.  The  Dutch  were  ordered  from 
Hirado  to  Nagasaki.  There  they  were  confined  to 
Deshima,  an  island  but  two  hundred  yards  in  length 
and  eighty  in  width.  Their  rent  was  exorbitant,  the 
presents  demanded  of  them  excessive.  When  even  on 
these  conditions  they  had  built  up  a  profitable  trade 
in  metals  they  were,  after  1790,  limited  to  one  ship  a 
year  at  Deshima.  No  other  foreign  ships  were  allowed 
to  trade  with  Japan  at  all.  The  first  sign  of  predilection 
for  an  alien  creed  exposed  the  Japanese  to  severest 
punishment.  Attempt  to  leave  the  limits  of  the  realm 
was  punishable  with  decapitation.  Foreign  sailors 
wrecked  upon  the  shores  might  be  put  to  death.  The 
opening  of  Japan  was  postponed  until  almost  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  By  that  time  the  whaling 
industry  in  Russian  waters  of!  the  coast  of  Alaska  had 
attracted  large  investments  of  American  capital  and  was 
yearly  pursued  by  thousands  of  American  sailors. 
Shipwrecked  mariners  had  generally  been  treated  with 
tolerable  consideration,  but  some  had  had  bad  experi- 
ences. In  1846  the  United  States  government  made 
formal  application  for  the  privilege  of  trading  and  was 
refused.  In  1849  an  American  ship,  the  "Preble," 
under  Commander  Glynn,  anchored  in  Nagasaki  harbor 
and  threatened  to  bombard  the  town  unless  immediate 
delivery  were  made  of  eighteen  seamen  who,  having  been 
wrecked  in  northern  waters,  were  held  by  the  Japanese 
preparatory  to  their  being  shipped  to  the  Dutch  colony 
at  Batavia.  In  1853  Commodore  Perry,  with  a  squadron 
of  four  ships  of  war  and  five  hundred  and  sixty  men, 
entered  Uraga  Bay. 


148  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

140.  TJie  opening  of  Japan. — With  the  secular  move- 
ment as  inaugurated  by  the  coming  of  Commodore 
Perry  and  the  signing  of  the  treaty  which  he  secured  we 
may  deal  briefly.  The  de  facto  rule  of  the  chief  noble 
of  the  land,  which  had  so  long  relegated  the  emperor  to 
a  position  in  which  much  was  made  of  his  divine  honor 
and  nothing  was  expected  of  him  in  the  way  of  practical 
influence,  was  coming  to  an  end  by  its  own  inner  decay. 
A  new  issue  would  reveal  the  evil  of  a  divided  rule. 
Such  an  issue  now  arose  on  the  question  of  foreign  trade. 
The  example  of  Great  Britain  in  China  since  the  opium 
wars  showed  trade  to  be  only  the  entering  wedge  for 
other  influences.  It  is  possible  that  Perry's  way  was 
made  easier  for  him  because  of  the  fear  that  if  Japan  did 
not  yield  to  the  United  States  she  might  have  to  yield 
to  Great  Britain.  Conjuring  up  the  fear  of  Great  Britain 
France  had  sought  to  persuade  Japan  to  throw  herself 
into  the  hands  of  France.  Perry  did  not  unduly  press  for 
a  treaty,  but  after  lying  at  anchor  for  ten  days  sailed  away, 
saying  that  he  would  return  the  following  year.  The 
Shogun,  whose  ancestors  had  been  absolutely  autocratic, 
now  summoned  the  feudatories  for  counsel.  It  was 
patent  to  all  that  the  country  was  unable  to  withstand 
foreign  pressure.  There  was  a  considerable  party  which 
really  wished  to  permit  foreign  trade.  The  sight  of 
Perry's  steamships  with  powerful  guns,  which  brought 
also  specimens  of  Western  wonders  of  invention,  sewing 
machines  and  model  railways,  had  had  effect.  In  reality 
the  die  had  been  already  cast.  The  treaty  granted 
pledged  Japan  to  accord  proper  treatment  to  shipwrecked 
sailors,  to  permit  foreign  vessels  to  obtain  stores  and 
provisions,  and  to  allow  American  ships  to  anchor  at 


JAPAN  149 

Shimoda  and  Hakodate.  Russia,  Holland,  and  England 
speedily  secured  for  themselves  like  privileges.  The 
treaty  had  been  signed  without  the  consent  of  the  govern- 
ment at  Kyoto.  Thenceforth  the  administrative  court 
at  Yeddo,  now  Tokyo,  and  the  imperial  court  at  Kyoto 
were  in  open  opposition  the  one  to  the  other.  Humbled 
by  his  adversaries  and  held  responsible  by  foreigners 
for  things  which  he  could  not  prevent  the  old  Shogun 
died  in  1866.  The  new  Shogun  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  advanced  liberal  party  inaugurating  plans 
for  the  training  of  the  army  through  the  aid  of  France 
and  of  the  navy  through  that  of  England.  He  altered 
the  customs  of  the  court  so  as  to  bring  them  into  con- 
formity with  the  usages  of  foreign  diplomacy.  Then 
he  freely  resigned  his  power  into  the  hands  of  the 
Emperor. 

141.  Relation  to  other  nations. — From  1866  onward 
the  new  spirit  rapidly  permeated  the  whole  nation.  The 
Mikado  took  the  line  which  his  followers  had  once  blamed 
the  Shogun  for  taking.  Progress  became  the  aim  of  all 
classes.  The  country  entered  upon  a  course  which  in 
forty  years  won  for  Japan  a  universally  conceded  place  in 
the  ranks  of  the  great  world-powers.  From  the  time 
of  the  Mikado's  resumption  of  authority  relations  of 
Japan  with  foreign  states  grew  with  each  year  more 
amicable.  Treaties  were  observed  with  exemplary  care. 
One  feature  of  the  treaties  became  exceedingly  irksome 
to  the  Japanese.  This  was  the  privilege  of  extra- 
territoriality, the  fact  that  foreigners  residing  within 
her  borders  were  exempt  from  the  operation  of  her 
laws.  The  system  had  been  a  tradition  of  the  European 
powers  in  dealing  with  the  nations  of  the  East.     That  it 


150  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

had  been  necessary  in  some  cases  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
The  Japanese  had  at  first  interposed  no  objection.  Yet 
there  were  often  abuses  and  causes  of  irritation  under  the 
system  of  consular  courts.  When  the  Japanese  had 
done  everything  to  fit  themselves  to  exercise  this  one  of 
the  attributes  of  a  sovereign  state  in  full  accord  with  the 
law  of  nations  they  were  incensed  because  the  European 
powers  were  dilatory  about  revising  their  treaties  to  this 
effect.  They  asked  for  a  revision  of  treaties  in  187 1  and 
again  in  1 883 .  It  was  in  1 899  that  the  last  vestiges  of  the 
old  system  disappeared. 

142.  Resumption  of  Roman  missions. — When  under 
the  treaties  it  became  possible  for  foreigners  to  reside  in 
Japan,  missionaries,  both  Roman  and  Protestant,  lost 
no  time  in  availing  themselves  of  the  privilege.  Roman 
Catholics  came  to  discover  and  to  aid  their  brethren  who 
had  been  so  long  under  the  ban  of  their  own  government 
and  cut  off  from  any  contact  with  the  church  to  which 
they  acknowledged  allegiance.  It  is  certain  that  for 
many  years  after  the  edicts  Roman  priests  had  refused 
to  leave  Japan.  Others  arrived  from  Europe,  dedicating 
themselves  even  in  the  face  of  probable  martyrdom  to 
the  serving  of  the  persecuted  Japanese  church.  The 
Japanese  martyrs  who  had  been  crucified  in  1597  were  by 
a  brief  of  Pope  Urban  VIII  in  1627  permitted  to  be 
honored  in  the  celebration  of  the  mass.  The  canoniza- 
tion of  which  this  beatification  was  the  prelude  did  not 
take  place  until  1862,  under  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX, 
after  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  work  in  Japan  had 
begun.  At  Urikami  and  other  places  near  Nagasaki 
there  were  found  some  thousands  of  people  who  possessed 
prayer  and  service  books  with  sacramental  words  of 


JAPAN  151 

Latin  origin.  Until  the  Act  of  Toleration  in  1872  these 
people  and  the  converts  whom  the  missionaries  now 
made  were  often  persecuted.  Since  1872  the  mission 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  has  been  prosecuted  with 
great  success,  chiefly  by  French  priests. 

143.  Beginnings  of  Protestant  missions. — It  was  not 
unnatural  that  since  the  gates  of  Japan  had  been  opened 
to  the  world  by  America  the  first  Protestant  missionaries 
to  enter  the  country  should  be  Americans.  It  was 
natural  too  that  one  of  the  first  of  the  American  churches 
to  be  represented  should  be  the  Reformed  Dutch  church. 
This  church,  interested  no  doubt  in  the  history  of  Dutch 
commerce  in  Japan,  promptly  availed  itself  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  country  to  send  out  Guido  Verbeck,  who 
landed  at  Nagasaki  in  1859.  Verbeck,  although  the 
emissary  of  the  American  church  of  the  descendants  of 
the  Hollanders,  had  been  born  in  Utrecht.  The  first 
impression  of  Protestantism  in  Japan,  long  before 
Perry's  treaty,  had  been  made  by  devout  Dutch  mer- 
chants at  Deshima.  There  is  a  romantic  story  of 
Verbeck's  early  years  at  Nagasaki  which  nevertheless 
appears  to  be  true.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  a 
Japanese  officer,  Wakasa,  who  while  in  command  of  the 
forces  there  in  1854  had  picked  up  an  English  copy  of  the 
New  Testament  floating  in  the  harbor.  He  had  learned 
English,  became  interested  in  the  life  and  teaching  of 
Jesus,  and  in  1866  was  baptized  by  Verbeck.  Verbeck, 
who  was  a  man  of  eminent  attainments,  was  at  first 
allowed  to  reside  in  Japan  only  as  a  teacher.  He 
taught  a  number  of  young  men  of  the  samurai,  some  of 
whom  attained  distinction  in  the  new  government  after 
the  revolution  of   1868.    At  the  suggestion  of  these 


152  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Verbeck  was  called  to  Tokyo  to  give  counsel  to  the 
government  in  framing  the  new  educational  policy  of 
the  realm.  For  nine  years  he  remained  in  Tokyo, 
supervising  the  national  system  of  education  then 
established.  He  recommended  that  Japanese  youth 
should  be  sent  to  the  universities  and  higher  technical 
schools  of  Europe  and  America  to  prosecute  their  studies. 
He  accompanied  the  first  deputation  of  Japanese  officials 
on  a  journey  of  inspection  in  various  countries  of  Europe. 
He  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.     He  died  in  1898. 

In  the  same  year  with  Verbeck  there  came  to  Japan 
two  other  missionaries  who  achieved  high  distinction  in 
the  land  of  their  adoption  and  had  great  influence  over 
their  respective  churches  in  America  in  arousing  interest 
in  things  Japanese.  James  Hepburn  was  a  graduate  of 
Princeton  College  and  of  the  medical  school  of  Pennsyl- 
vania University.  He  was  sent  out  by  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  the  United  States  and  went  first  to  Singapore. 
In  1859  he  was  sent  by  his  Board  to  Japan  to  open 
medical  mission  work  in  that  land.  He  made  himself  a 
place  not  only  in  medicine  but  also  in  literary  work. 
He  had  an  extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  language. 
Few  missionaries  ever  gained  in  higher  degree  the  esteem 
of  all  classes  of  people.  On  his  ninetieth  birthday,  in 
1905,  long  after  his  retirement,  the  Emperor  conferred 
upon  him  the  order  of  the  Rising  Sun.  The  third  in 
this  group  was  Charming  Moore  Williams,  a  Virginian, 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  mission  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States  to  Japan.  In 
1866  he  was  made  bishop  of  China  and  Japan.  Only 
in  1874  was  another  bishop  appointed  for  China  while 


JAPAN  153 

Williams  continued  in  Japan.  He  remained  until  1908. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  Theological  Seminary  at 
Alexandria  of  winch  Phillips  Brooks  was  also  an 
alumnus,  and  had  much  to  do  with  Brooks's  interest 
in  missions.  In  those  early  years  the  situation  in  Japan 
was  such  that  it  drew  like  a  magnet  rare  spirits  from 
every  country  in  the  world,  but  especially  from  America, 
and  into  every  phase  of  useful  work.  It  was  recognized 
from  the  first  that  it  would  be  useless  to  send  any  but  the 
ablest  men.  It  is  doubtful  if  missions  sent  to  any  lands 
ever  contained  a  larger  proportion  of  able  men  than  did 
the  Japan  missions  in  those  early  years.  Greene  and 
Davis,  who  came  to  Japan  when  they  could  exercise  the 
function  only  of  teachers,  and  Gordon,  who  added  him- 
self to  their  company  as  a  physician,  all  became  preachers 
of  note.  They  constituted  a  trio  whom  the  American 
Board  will  not  easily  forget.  Greene  developed  into  a 
public  character  of  rare  tact  and  responsibility.  He 
would  have  graced  a  diplomatic  service.  He  lived 
through  the  period  when  everything  foreign  was  accept- 
able and  again  through  the  reaction  in  which  everything 
foreign  was  suspected  and  odious.  He  was  the  trusted 
friend  and  adviser  of  Japanese  officials  and  the  inter- 
mediary in  many  delicate  and  difficult  relations.  Davis, 
who  had  been  a  soldier  in  the  American  Civil  War, 
remained  a  leader  to  the  end.  De  Forest  and  Cary 
have  worthily  carried  on  this  tradition. 

144.  Neesima. — In  some  ways,  however,  by  far  the 
most  influential  Christian  in  Japan  in  those  early  years 
was  a  Japanese,  Joseph  Hardy  Neesima,  if  we  may  use 
that  form  of  writing  a  name  now  grown  familiar  to  the 
world.    He  was  born  in  Yeddo  in  1843   °f   samurai 


154  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

descent.  His  father  was  a  retainer  of  the  daimio  of 
Omaka.  When  he  was  sixteen  years  old  that  which  he 
had  heard  concerning  America  inspired  him  with  eager 
desire  to  visit  that  country.  The  attempt  to  leave  his 
country  was  still  punishable  with  death.  Nevertheless, 
in  the  year  1859  he  managed  to  escape  to  Shanghai. 
There  the  captain  of  a  ship  bound  for  Boston  consented 
to  let  him  work  his  passage  thither.  He  sold  one  of  the 
two  swords  which  he  was  entitled  to  wear  that  he  might 
buy  an  English  Bible.  In  Boston  the  owner  of  the 
ship,  Mr.  Alpheus  Hardy,  took  him  into  his  house  as  a 
servant.  Discovering  Neesima's  worth  he  sent  him 
successively  to  Phillips  Academy,  Amherst  College,  and 
Andover  Seminary.  Before  Neesima  had  completed 
his  theological  studies  a  Japanese  embassy  headed  by 
Prince  Iwa-Kura  arrived  in  America.  They  requested 
Neesima  to  serve  as  their  interpreter  and  assist  them  in 
their  investigation  of  educational  institutions  in  America 
and  Europe.  When  his  labors  were  ended,  having  been 
ordained  in  the  Congregational  ministry,  Neesima  went 
before  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  in  1874  to  plead  for 
the  establishment  of  a  Christian  school  of  highest  grade 
in  his  country.  On  reacliing  Japan  he  found  the  mis- 
sion of  the  American  Board  earnestly  in  favor  of  estab- 
lishing such  a  college.  Their  first  impulse  was  to  locate 
it  in  Tokyo,  side  by  side  with  the  new  imperial  university, 
where  the  influence  of  many  even  of  the  European  and 
American  teachers  was  distinctly  anti-Christian.  In 
the  end  the  college,  called  Doshisha,  was  established  at 
Kyoto  in  the  center  of  powerful  Buddhist  influences. 
The  opposition  of  the  priests  was  hardly  greater  than 


JAPAN  155 

* 

the  difficulties  interposed  by  government.  It  was  easy 
to  acquit  Protestantism  of  political  intentions,  yet  the 
old  suspicion  was  strong.  Japanese  who  had  been  in 
Europe  and  America  knew  that  much  even  of  the 
Protestantism  of  the  decade  of  the  seventies  was  hostile 
to  the  great  scientific  movement.  The  scientific  move- 
ment was  hostile  to  Christianity.  In  the  end  Neesima's 
faith  and  courage  triumphed  over  every  obstacle.  The 
school,  which  has  now  grown  into  one  of  the  universities 
recognized  by  the  state,  was  opened  in  Neesima's  own 
house  in  November,  1875,  with  eight  pupils.  These 
words  may  suffice  to  indicate  his  place  in  the  history  of 
learning  in  his  country  and  in  the  movement  for  the 
naturalization  and  nationalization  of  everything  Chris- 
tian. No  man  had  greater  part  in  it  than  Neesima,  and 
this  in  spite  of  his  profound  sense  of  obligation  to  mis- 
sions and  America.  He  died  in  1890,  in  his  forty-eighth 
year. 

145.  Japan  in  the  new  era. — The  foregoing  paragraphs 
serve  to  bring  into  strong  relief  certain  characteristics 
of  the  Christian  movement  in  Japan.  Missionaries  had 
been  from  the  beginning  not  mere  evangelists  and  pro- 
mulgators of  a  new  view  of  religion.  Here  they  had  been 
the  advocates  of  a  Christian  influence  in  the  transforma- 
tion of  all  relations  of  Japanese  fife.  That  transforma- 
tion was  taking  place  with  rapidity  in  any  case.  Mis- 
sionaries were  accorded  a  place  in  it  only  as  they  were 
competent  to  fill  that  place.  So  strong  was  the  impulse 
of  the  Japanese,  so  zealous  their  participation  in  all 
other  phases  of  the  new  movement,  that  Japanese  like 
Neesima  possessed  themselves  of  a  leadership  in  the 
Christian  movement  almost  as  soon  as  there  was  a 


156  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Christian  movement  to  lead.  Christianity  in  Japan 
never  passed,  save  for  the  briefest  interval,  through 
the  stage  in  which  it  was  a  mere  propaganda  in  the  hands 
of  strangers.  These  facts  go  far  to  explain  the  favor  with 
which  the  Christian  movement  was  at  first  received  and 
the  rapidity  of  the  progress  which  for  a  time  it  made. 
Then  came  a  natural  revulsion,  a  swing  of  the  pendulum, 
a  resurgence  of  national  instinct  which  checked  the 
appropriation  of  many  other  elements  of  Western  life 
in  Japan  at  the  same  time.  In  the  end  the  check  was  an 
excellent  thing.  It  stripped  the  Christian  movement  of 
extraneous  elements  of  its  popularity.  Before  we  go  on 
with  this  history,  however,  we  must  speak  briefly  of 
certain  elements  in  the  amazing  transformation  which 
Japan  underwent  in  the  early  years  of  the  Meiji  era.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  restoration  and  all  that  followed 
it  was  carried  out  by  the  representatives  of  a  class  which 
numbered  hardly  a  fortieth  of  the  population.  The 
feudal  element  renounced  its  own  privileges  in  an 
enthusiasm  for  Japan  which  led  them  to  high  self- 
abnegation.  The  development  of  democratic  parties 
and  ideals  followed  when  the  movement  was  well  upon 
its  way.  Even  as  late  as  1875  the  idea  of  representative 
government  had  not  gone  beyond  the  periodical  conven- 
ing of  an  assembly  of  prefectural  governors  for  the 
exchange  of  ideas  and  the  encouragement  of  progress. 
In  1876  came  the  establishment  of  provincial  assemblies. 
Prolonged  and  thorough  study  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment was  meantime  being  made  in  every  country.  The 
experience  of  the  human  race  was  put  under  contribution. 
The  Marquis  Ito  directed  the  framing  of  the  constitution, 
which  was  promulgated  in  the  year  1890.     To  it  the 


JAPAN  157 

Japanese  peoples  proudly  point  as  the  only  charter  of 
the  kind  voluntarily  given  by  a  sovereign  to  his  subjects. 
There  may  be  a  measure  of  romance  in  this  view.  There 
is  also  a  good  degree  of  truth. 

146.  Action  and  reaction. — The  era  from  1868  to  1890 
was  one  which  in  respect  of  the  general  development  of 
Japan  was  viewed  by  the  sincere  friends  of  the  country 
with  deep  concern.  The  master-minds  who  had  planned 
the  restoration  continued  to  lead  in  the  path  of  progress. 
Many  of  these  men  had  enjoyed  exceptional  opportuni- 
ties of  acquiring  knowledge  by  sojourn  in  Europe  and 
America.  The  reformers  seemed  at  times  to  outstrip 
the  nation's  readiness.  Yet  in  the  end  the  most  striking 
trait  of  the  people  proved  to  be  their  power,  not  without 
moments  of  confusion,  to  appropriate  that  which  was 
for  them  available  and  to  reject  the  rest.  Englishmen 
were  employed  to  superintend  the  building  of  railways, 
the  introduction  of  the  telegraph,  the  coast  survey,  and 
the  organization  of  the  navy.  To  Frenchmen  was  n- 
trusted  largely  the  work  of  recasting  the  laws,  establish- 
ing the  courts,  and  training  the  army.  Educational 
affairs,  the  postal  service,  and  the  improvement  of  agri- 
culture were  put  in  the  hands  of  Americans.  The 
teaching  of  medicine,  the  compilation  of  a  commercial 
code,  and  ultimately  the  training  of  military  officers 
was  assigned  to  Germans.  Italians  were  called  as 
counselors  in  matters  of  art.  Yet  in  almost  all  these 
matters  there  was  a  strict  limitation  of  time  for  which 
foreign  appointees  would  be  permitted  to  serve.  At 
the  very  moment  when  so  much  of  the  nation's  life  was 
put  under  the  tutelage  of  foreigners  chosen  youths  were 
sent  abroad  to  fit  themselves  to  take  the  place  of  these 


158  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

foreigners.  The  movement  was  one  in  which  the  atti- 
tude of  mind  of  the  people  of  India,  for  example,  presents 
only  a  feeble  parallel,  although  India  has  been  so  much 
longer  in  contact  with  things  Western  than  has  Japan. 
It  was  one  which  was  characterized  by  a  leadership  for 
which  China,  for  example,  affords  no  parallel,  having  no 
feudal  tradition  and  being  so  portentously  democratic 
from  beforehand.  Yet  the  fact  that  Japan  has  actually 
blazed  the  way  and  accomplished  that  which  the  other 
nations  crave  may  in  some  measure  offset  the  disad- 
vantages of  other  nations  of  which  we  speak. 

147.  The  Christian  movement. — It  is  against  this 
background  of  the  transformation  of  Japanese  civiliza- 
tion that  we  have  to  think  of  the  advance  of  the  Chris- 
tian movement  in  Japan.  Allusion  was  made  to  the 
fact  that  so  soon  as  the  treaties  permitted  foreigners  to 
reside  in  Japan  language  teachers  were  welcomed.  Les- 
sons in  English  were  often  exchanged  by  the  newcomers 
for  lessons  in  Japanese.  There  was  no  concealment  of 
the  Christian  influence  of  many  of  these  teachers.  In 
general  no  objection  was  raised  to  it.  The  first  school 
which  seems  to  have  been  entitled  to  the  name  of  a 
missionary  school  was  begun  in  Tokyo  in  1869  by 
Mr.  Carrothers,  of  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission. 
Out  of  this  presently  grew  a  girls'  school  as  well.  The 
American  Board  opened  such  schools  in  Kobe  and  Osaka 
in  1872.  The  Kobe  College  for  women  is  the  direct 
outgrowth  of  that  endeavor.  Efforts  in  the  direction  of 
the  education  of  women  were  as  yet  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  missionaries.  There  was  thus  established  a 
relation  of  mission  work  to  education  which  became  one 
of  the  traditions.     There  was  an  interesting  endeavor 


JAPAN  159 

at  Sendai  in  1886  under  Dr.  DeForest  to  found  a  school 
and  college  distinctively  Christian  but  supported  by  a 
rich  Japanese,  long  resident  in  America,  and  governed 
by  the  public  officials  of  Sendai,  who  were,  of  course, 
non-Chrislians.  It  was  closed  only  in  1891  under  the 
policy  of  the  Department  of  Education  which  was  then 
opposed  to  all  private  schools  of  that  grade.  Of  the 
Doshisha  and  its  difficulties  in  the  time  of  the  reaction 
we  shall  speak  later.  In  1872  a  joint  committee  of  the 
missions  had  been  appointed  to  translate  the  Bible  into 
Japanese.  They  finished  their  work  in  1880.  One  of 
those  who  carried  this  work  to  its  completion  was 
Brown  of  the  Reformed  Church  who  so  early  as  1866 
had  made  his  own  translation.  In  was  only  in  1873 
that  permission  was  given  to  hold  public  services  for 
Christian  worship  and  preaching.  Even  then  the  oppor- 
tunity was  for  a  long  time  confined  to  the  cities  and  towns 
on  the  coast.  For  travel  in  the  interior  passports  had  to 
be  obtained.  To  missionaries  they  were  generally 
refused.  The  first  Japanese  Christian  church  was 
established  at  Yokohama  in  1872.  It  grew  out  of  the 
union  church  which  had  been  maintained  for  some  years 
by  the  English-speaking  residents  of  the  place.  The 
second  church,  that  in  Tokyo,  was  established  in  1873 
by  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission.  Churches  in 
Kobe  and  Osaka  followed  in  1874.  These  all  possessed 
no  denominational  affiliation.  By  1875  there  were  fifty 
places  in  and  about  these  cities  where  stated  worship 
was  held.  When  later  many  of  these  churches  wished  to 
join  in  some  sort  of  federation  they  chose  the  name 
Kumi-ai.  They  would  gladly  have  continued  to  be 
designated  simply  as  Christian  churches.     The  name 


160  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

chosen  does,  indeed,  suggest  their  self-government.  To 
have  called  themselves  Congregational  churches  would, 
however,  have  implied  that  they  were  affiliated  with  an 
American  denomination.  This  was  not  the  case,  although 
most  of  them  had  arisen  out  of  the  work  of  the  American 
Board.  Popular  favor  at  this  time  was  such  that  great 
mass  meetings  were  held  in  the  cities  in  the  interest  of  the 
Christian  propaganda.  In  1884  there  was  a  revival 
among  the  students  at  the  Doshisha  quite  on  the  lines 
of  student  revivals  in  some  of  the  American  colleges 
in  the  same  period.  The  membership  of  the  Kumi-ai 
churches  increased  at  this  time  50  and  60  per  cent  a  year. 
148.  Attitude  of  government. — In  1873  the  govern- 
ment had  ordered  the  removal  of  the  edict  boards  pro- 
hibiting Christian  rites  or  confession.  In  1871,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  Prince  Iwa-Kura  to  Europe, 
strong  representations  had  been  made  against  the  perse- 
cution of  Christians.  The  Japanese  government  had, 
moreover,  upon  its  hands  other  questions  of  religious 
toleration  than  those  which  pertained  to  Christians. 
In  the  restoration  of  imperial  authority  in  1868  there 
had  been  a  revival  of  something  like  actual  worship  of  the 
emperor.  Shintoist  and  Confucian  samurai,  both  promi- 
nent agents  in  the  political  transformation,  had  tried  to 
effect  the  establishment  of  national  religion.  Privileges 
long  granted  to  Buddhists  were  revoked.  The  purifica- 
tion of  the  national  religion,  Shinto,  was  to  be  carried 
out  with  rigor  after  twelve  hundred  years  of  partial 
fusion  with  Buddhism.  After  1872  the  two  faiths  were 
put  again  upon  equal  footing.  Shintoists  were  ordered 
to  organize  their  worshiping  bodies  apart  from  the  court 
ritual.     The  question  concerning  Christians  must  have 


JAPAN  161 

seemed  to  Japanese  statesmen  a  small  affair  compared 
with  the  domestic  question  with  which  they  were  then 
struggling.  The  necessity  of  recognizing  Buddhism 
paved  the  way  for  the  recognition  of  Christianity.  The 
constitution  promulgated  on  February  n,  1889,  guaran- 
teed full  religious  liberty  to  all  the  people  in  Japan.  On 
that  very  day  Mr.  Mori,  the  urgent  advocate  of  such 
liberty,  was  assassinated  by  a  Shinto  fanatic.  Mr. 
Mori,  it  was  alleged,  had  raised,  with  his  walking-stick, 
the  curtain  of  the  shrine  at  Ise.  Such  being  the  situation 
one  learns  with  greater  surprise  that  in  March,  1876, 
the  government  issued  a  decree  that  from  the  beginning 
of  the  next  month  Sunday  should  be  the  official  day  of 
rest.  The  old  way  of  reckoning  by  lunar  months  had 
been  abandoned  in  1873  and  the  months  Lnd  days  were 
brought  into  correspondence  with  those  of  the  foreign 
calendar.  The  years  were  reckoned,  not  from  the  birth 
of  Christ,  but  from  the  date  assigned  for  the  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Jimmu  Tenno,  660  B.C.  There  had  been, 
however,  constant  trouble  about  holidays.  This  act  of 
the  government  had  no  religious  significance.  The  results 
of  it  were,  however,  advantageous  to  the  Christian  cause. 
149.  Medical  work. — In  1872  Dr.  Berry,  having 
joined  the  American  Board  Mission,  was  invited  by 
foreign  residents  in  Kyoto  to  settle  there.  Passports 
for  foreigners  in  Kyoto  had  been  issued  only  the  year 
before.  The  foreign  residents  needed  a  physician.  Dr. 
Berry  thought  it  an  opportunity  of  opening  work  as  a 
missionary  physician  in  behalf  of  Japanese  as  well. 
There  were  foreign  physicians  in  the  concessions.  There 
were  few  missionary  physicians  as  yet.  Dr.  Berry  soon 
found   a   more   favorable   field   in    Kobe   and   Osaka. 


1 62  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Already  in  1874  the  self-support  of  the  medical  work  in 
Kobe  was  assured.  Wealthier  patients  were  more  than 
willing  to  pay  fees  which  covered  a  large  part  of  the 
charitable  work  among  the  poor.  In  almost  every 
country  medical  work  has  been  the  first  to  achieve  self- 
support.  The  Japanese  were  sensitive  about  foreign 
support  of  any  work  done  on  their  behalf.  From  the 
first,  Japanese  youths,  Christians  in  due  proportion 
with  others,  studied  medicine.  They  studied  in  Japan 
and  in  Europe  and  America.  Philanthropic  enterprise 
established  hospitals  and  dispensaries.  Faculties  of 
medicine  and  of  all  the  sciences  subordinate  to  medicine 
were  among  the  most  flourishing  in  the  national  uni- 
versities. National  and  municipal  care  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  became  a  matter  of  pride.  After  1895  there 
were  schools  for  nurses.  The  years  when  European 
medicine  was  practiced  only  by  foreigners  in  Japan  were 
exceedingly  few.  The  number  of  missionary  physicians 
sent  to  Japan  was  not  at  any  time  great.  It  never  held 
comparison  with  the  number  of  such  physicians  in 
China  or  even  in  India.  There  are  general  missionary 
hospitals  in  Osaka  and  Tokyo.  There  are  Christian 
institutions  for  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis  and  of 
leprosy.  There  is  ample  opportunity  for  the  Japanese 
churches  to  assist  in  this  work,  particularly  amoDg  the 
poor.  Two  of  the  leper  hospitals  are  under  the  care  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  best-known  under  Protes- 
tant auspices  is  perhaps  that  associated  with  the  name  of 
Miss  Riddell  at  Kumamoto.  There  is  no  medical  school 
in  Japan  under  missionary  or  other  foreign  auspices. 

150.  General  philanthropy. — In  1875  Dr.  Berry  had 
obtained   permission   through   the   American   minister 


JAPAN  163 

to  visit  prisons  in  different  parts  of  Japan.  The  results 
of  his  inspection  were  embodied  in  a  report  submitted 
to  the  government.  The  government  printed  the  report 
and  distributed  it  among  prison  officials.  The  governor 
of  Kobe  appointed  a  member  of  the  Japanese  Christian 
church  in  that  city  as  a  teacher  in  the  prison  to  give 
instruction  in  reading,  arithmetic,  and  morals.  He 
ultimately  became  superintendent  of  the  prison.  The 
great  reforms  in  the  Japanese  prison  system,  with  the 
study  of  Western  scientific  method  of  dealing  with 
penal  questions,  date  from  this  small  beginning.  The 
treatment  of  prisoners  in  Japan  had  never  been  so  irre- 
sponsible as  in  China,  but  it  certainly  had  been  hard. 
The  Okayama  Orphanage  originated  in  the  love  and 
devotion  of  Ishii  Juji.  Ishii  had  been  a  medical  student 
at  Okayama.  He  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic  and 
later  joined  the  Kumi-ai  church.  In  1886  George  Miiller 
visited  Japan.  Ishii  was  much  moved  by  what  Miiller 
told  of  his  orphanages  in  London  and  the  method  adopted 
for  their  support.  He  rented  an  old  Buddhist  temple  and 
gathered  the  first  little  group  of  abandoned  children. 
Friends  gathered  about  him,  for  he  had  no  means  of  his 
own.  Beyond  question  his  work  furnished  the  incentive 
for  the  founding  of  orphanages  in  many  other  parts  of 
Japan.  The  wars  of  1894  and  of  1904  gave  opportunity 
for  the  Christian  communities  to  show  their  devotion 
to  their  country,  a  devotion  which  could  never  reasonably 
have  been  impugned,  and  as  well  to  develop  to  the  full 
their  resources  of  money  and  of  men  in  the  performance 
of  every  humane  and  philanthropic  task.  The  Russian 
war  especially  gave  to  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, as  well  in  its  widespread  Japanese  constituency 


164  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

as  in  the  number  of  American  and  British  youth  who 
served  in  the  camps  and  at  the  front,  the  opportunity 
of  showing  their  devotion  to  the  good  of  soldiers  and 
prisoners  in  respect  of  their  physical  and  social  and  moral 
welfare.  The  origin  of  many  ameliorating  efforts  in  the 
life  of  Japan  has  thus  been  with  the  missions  and  within 
the  Christian  circle.  The  continued  support  of  them  is 
still  with  the  Christian  circle  in  a  measure  which  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  percentage  which  the  Christians 
bear  to  the  Japanese  population  as  a  whole  or  to  their 
relative  financial  position  in  the  land.  The  Japan 
Year  Book  for  1907,  published  in  English  but  written 
by  Japanese,  contains  this  interesting  statement: 
"It  is  a  significant  fact  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
private  charity  work  of  any  large  scope  is  conducted 
by  Christians  both  natives  and  aliens."  In  1909,  after 
a  thorough  examination  of  all  charities  and  philan- 
thropies in  the  country  not  under  government,  gifts  were 
made  by  the  Japanese  imperial  government  to  seventy- 
nine  institutions.  A  large  number  of  these  were  under 
Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic  auspices. 

151.  The  reaction:  causes. — In  1889  the  Christian 
movement  in  Japan  had  experienced  a  serious  check. 
Parallel  retardation  or  retrogression  was  observable  in 
the  educational  movement,  in  literature,  in  arts  and 
industry,  and  even  in  certain  aspects  of  social  and  domes- 
tic life.  Perhaps  retrogression  is  not  the  word.  What 
was  taking  place  was  the  tightening  of  the  grip  of  the 
racial  and  national  spirit  upon  the  efforts  at  progress 
which  were  being  made.  It  was  as  if  the  Japanese 
people  suddenly  had  become  aware  at  the  end  of  the 
decade  of  the  eighties  how  far  the  enthusiasm  for  things 


JAPAN  165 

foreign  had  carried  them.  The  conviction  found  expres- 
sion in  the  popular  language  of  the  day  that  the  Japanese 
people  must  respect  its  own  genius  and  preserve  its 
national  excellencies.  This  became  the  mood  of  the 
period.  This  was  the  duty  which  was  now  talked  of, 
written  about,  and  even  embodied  in  song.  It  is  not  to 
be  denied  that  some  of  the  causes  of  the  arrest  of  the 
Christian  movement  were  within  the  Christian  communi- 
ties themselves.  In  the  days  of  very  rapid  growth  many 
persons  had  joined  the  churches  who  were  far  from  being 
imbued  with  the  Christian  spirit.  Those  who  had 
come  in  with  mixed  motives  now  felt  it  to  be  to  their 
advantage  to  go  out  again.  Deeper  natures,  not  merely 
self-seekers,  experienced  another  kind  of  disappoint- 
ment. They  had  dreamed  that  the  spiritual  truth  and 
pure  morality  which  they  had  embraced  would  soon 
work  the  complete  transformation  of  their  world.  They 
found  the  transformation  even  of  the  Christian  body 
lamentably  incomplete.  Japanese  who  had  traveled 
abroad  now  told,  not  as  so  often  before  merely  what 
wonders  they  had  seen,  but  also  of  the  misery  and  vice 
and  crimes  in  Christendom  which  they  had  observed. 
That  was  the  era  in  which  the  presentation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  pulpits  of  Europe  and  America  and  the 
teaching  of  it  in  colleges  and  seminaries  had  not  yet 
in  all  cases  successfully  found  adjustment  to  the 
progress  of  science  and  of  historical  criticism.  That 
failure  of  adjustment  was  often  fatal  to  the  religious 
peace  and  power  of  bolder  spirits  even  in  Europe  and 
America. 

152.  The  reaction:  effects. — The  centers  of  education  in 
Japan  became  to  some  extent  centers  of  anti- Christian 


1 66  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

influence.  There  was  a  disposition  to  urge  the  claims  of 
the  government  schools  as  being  more  completely  under 
official  inspection  and  better  calculated  to  instil  patriot- 
ism. It  was  true,  moreover,  that  the  vast  sums  spent  on 
these  schools  had  given  them  an  equipment  with  which 
few  of  the  mission  schools  could  compete  and  a  standard 
of  work  which  these  last  might  well  envy.  Not  unnatu- 
rally the  government  reserved  certain  privileges,  for 
example  that  of  curtailment  of  the  term  of  obligatory 
military  service,  for  those  who  were  in  the  government 
colleges  or  at  least  in  those  which  the  government  would 
recognize.  It  could  make  easy  or  difficult  the  entry  upon 
posts  in  public  service  and  professional  careers  on  the 
same  basis.  The  churches,  which  had  never  been  under 
the  domination  of  the  missionaries  in  a  measure  com- 
parable with  that  which  had  obtained  in  some  other 
countries,  now  in  the  excess  of  national  feeling  threatened 
in  some  cases  to  turn  away  from  the  missionaries  alto- 
gether. It  became  almost  a  part  of  the  capital  of  aspir- 
ants for  leadership  in  the  newly  formed  organizations 
to  appeal  to  this  national  sentiment  against  the  mission- 
aries. It  was  rather  a  trying  time  exactly  for  those 
missionaries  who  had  deepest  sympathy  with  the  move- 
ment for  the  naturalization  of  Christianity  and  the 
nationalization  of  the  church.  The  easiest  course  for 
them  would  have  been  to  consider  that  their  work  was 
finished  and  to  leave  the  Japanese  to  themselves.  Some 
took  this  course.  Others  felt,  in  the  very  depth  of 
affection  for  this  movement  which  they  had  called  into 
being,  that  there  was  still  a  great  service  which  in  tact 
and  patience  they  might  render.  There  was  still  a 
possibility  of  their  standing  side  by  side  with  their 


JAPAN  167 

grown-up  children  in  the  faith.  The  leaders  of  the 
Japanese  church  have  themselves  in  later  years  grate- 
fully shared  this  view.  Actual  integration  of  the  mis- 
sions in  the  Japanese  church  is  the  course  proposed  by 
a  recent  deputation  of  the  American  Board  to  Japan. 

153.  The  Imperial  Rescript. — In  October,  1890,  the 
Emperor  put  forth  what  has  since  been  known  as  the 
Imperial  Rescript  on  Education,  a  document  which  has 
had  a  great  influence  upon  the  religious  history  of  Japan. 
The  Rescript  was  sent  to  the  schools  and  it  became  the 
custom  for  teachers  and  pupils  to  come  together  on 
certain  national  holidays  to  listen  to  its  formal  reading. 
It  is  brief  and  deals  not  at  all  with  general  education  but 
rather  with  duties  personal  and  domestic  and  with 
devotion  to  the  state.  It  is  a  solemn  injunction  relat- 
ing to  questions  of  moral  and  social  life  from  the  point 
of  view  of  exalted  patriotism.  It  closes  with  the  words: 
"The  way  here  set  forth  is  indeed  the  teaching  be- 
queathed by  our  imperial  ancestors  to  be  observed  alike 
by  their  descendants  and  subjects  infallible  for  all  ages 
and  true  in  all  places.  It  is  our  wish  to  lay  it  to  heart 
in  all  reverence  in  common  with  you  our  subjects  that 
we  may  all  thus  attain  to  the  same  virtue."  The 
Rescript  is  clearly  a  witness  to  the  solicitude  felt  at  that 
time  as  to  the  basis  of  the  moral  and  social  life  of  the 
people.  It  was  felt  that  the  reverence  once  inculcated 
in  the  home,  the  strong  bonds  of  loyalty  in  every  relation 
which  the  feudal  system  had  maintained,  the  homage 
rendered  to  the  emperor  as  almost  divine,  were  being 
jeopardized  in  the  new  development  of  Japan.  The 
new  Western  ideas  with  the  discrediting  of  the  old  which 
was  incidental  were  injuriously  affecting  the  fundamental 


1 68  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

principles  of  society.  The  temper  of  the  edict  was  admi- 
rable, its  recurrence  to  tradition  in  these  deepest  things 
in  the  moral  and  spiritual  life  quite  natural.  The 
Rescript  was  seized  upon  by  reactionaries  who  saw  in 
it  a  direct  blow  against  the  ethics  and  religion  of  the 
West.  It  was  asserted  that  the  West  knew  little  of 
loyalty  and  filial  piety,  an  assertion  for  which  it  was  not 
difficult  to  find  superficial  evidence,  particularly  upon 
the  latter  point.  The  immemorial  allegation,  made 
already  under  the  Roman  emperors  and  repeated  in 
varied  circumstances  ever  since,  that  Christianity  by  its 
emphasis  upon  conscience  loosens  the  bonds  of  every 
earthly  authority,  was  renewed.  This  allegation  also 
is  not  without  a  certain  truth,  although  not  quite  the 
truth  which  was  here  proclaimed.  Difficulties  arose  in 
the  administration  of  the  mission  schools  and  in  the 
conduct  of  Christian  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  other 
schools.  Moreover,  the  loyalty  of  Christians  was  some- 
times suspected.  Obstacles  were  thrown  in  the  way  of 
their  advancement  in  political  life.  The  parliamentary 
elections  of  1890  were  watched  with  unusual  interest. 
In  certain  cases  it  had  been  impossible  for  Christians  to 
stand  as  candidates.  Yet  thirteen  out  of  three  hundred 
representatives  then  elected  were  professing  Christians. 
This  was  nearly  nine  times  the  proportion  which  the 
Christians  had  in  the  whole  population. 

154.  The  case  of  the  Doshisha. — All  three  of  the  causes 
which  we  have  named  combined  to  affect  powerfully 
the  fortunes  of  Doshisha,  the  school,  college,  and  theo- 
logical seminary  which  had  sprung  from  the  enthusiasm 
of  Joseph  Neesima  and  been  fostered  with  zeal  both  by 
the  Kyoto  mission  of  the  American  Board  and  by  the 


JAPAN  169 

Kumi-ai  churches.  The  reactionary  impulse  of  the  time, 
which  yet  covered  a  real  principle  of  progress,  was  mir- 
rored in  this  episode.  It  may  be  taken  as  representative 
of  many  things  which  were  happening  in  Japan  at  that 
time.  Neesima  had  established  the  school  in  co- 
operation with  the  missionaries.  The  American  Board 
had  given  money  for  the  erection  of  the  buildings  and 
other  expenses.  It  had  acted  as  the  medium  through 
which  much  larger  contributions  had  been  made  by 
American  friends.  Its  missionaries  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  teaching  staff.  Foreigners  could,  however, 
hold  no  real  estate  in  the  interior  of  Japan.  The  prop- 
erty was  held  by  a  company  composed  exclusively  of 
Japanese  and  this  company  had  charge  of  all  business 
arising  between  the  school  and  the  Japanese  government. 
So  long  as  Neesima  lived  and  for  a  time  after  his  death 
all  things  went  well.  Then  the  causes  spoken  of  and 
others  also  began  to  make  themselves  felt.  Some  mis- 
sionaries and  many  Japanese  felt  that  the  institution 
was  losing  its  definite  Christian  character.  Yet  also 
there  were  those  who  felt  that  the  future  of  the  school 
lay,  if  not  in  the  abolition  of  that  character,  at  least  in 
the  alteration  of  the  manner  of  the  manifestation  of  that 
character.  It  was  at  that  time  impossible  for  the  trus- 
tees to  obtain  government  recognition  without  the  aboli- 
tion of  arrangements  which  the  charter  had  certainly 
contemplated.  Count  Okuma,  then  prime  minister 
and  deeply  interested  in  the  Doshisha,  offered  his  aid 
to  the  representative  of  the  American  Board  to  bring 
about  an  adjustment.  In  the  end  the  charter  and 
constitution  were  revised,  embodying,  indeed,  the  origi- 
nal intention  but  adapting  the  provisions  to  the  new 


170  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

conditions  which  had  arisen.  Missionaries  whose  salaries 
the  Board  pays  still  teach  on  the  staff.  Funds  of  which 
the  Board  in  Boston  is  trustee  are  appropriated  abso- 
lutely at  the  discretion  of  the  trustees  in  Kyoto.  Other 
subsidies  aid  the  gifts  of  the  Japanese  Christians  and 
non-Christian  public.  The  Doshisha  had  been  for  more 
than  a  decade  one  of  the  recognized  universities  of  the 
empire.  Mr.  Kataoka,  four  times  speaker  of  the  Lower 
House  of  Parliament,  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian 
church,  became  president  of  the  Doshisha  in  1902. 
Dr.  Tasuku  Harada  was  elected  to  that  office  in  1906. 
During  the  first  decade  of  his  adminstration  the  student 
body  increased  from  568  to  1,379.  In  1913  the  profes- 
sors and  teachers  numbered  forty-four,  of  whom  thirty- 
two  were  Japanese  and  twelve  American.  There  were 
twenty-six  additional  lecturers,  most  of  them  connected 
with  the  University  of  Kyoto. 

155.  Growth  of  tlie  churches. — Mention  has  been 
made  of  the  Kumi-ai  churches,  essentially  Congre- 
gational in  their  polity.  Fully  as  important  is  the 
United  Church  of  Japan,  which  was  formed  in  1877. 
It  has  grown  out  of  the  missions  of  the  Presbyterian  and 
Dutch  and  German  Reformed  churches.  Of  nearly  the 
same  membership  is  the  Holy  Catholic  church  of  Japan 
formed  in  1887,  including  all  Christians  connected 
with  the  missions  of  the  Anglican  church.  There  are 
at  present  seven  dioceses  presided  over  by  British  or 
again  by  American  bishops.  Later  than  any  of  the 
foregoing  groups  to  be  formed  and  as  yet  smaller  is  the 
Methodist  church  in  Japan,  uniting  since  1907  the  work 
of  all  Methodists  working  in  Japan.  It  has  a  Japanese 
bishop,   the   distinguished   Bishop   Honda.     The   total 


JAPAN  171 

number  of  Protestant  communicants  in  these  churches, 
which  are  to  a  large  extent  independent  of  help  received 
from  foreign  missionary  societies,  is  about  one  hundred 
thousand,  or  about  one  in  fifty-five  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. It  is  said  that  at  the  time  of  the  accession  of  the 
late  Emperor  in  1868  there  were  but  four  Japanese 
Christians  connected  with  Protestant  missions.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  in  191 2  there  were  eighty-three  thou- 
sand. The  rate  of  increase  in  these  bodies  in  the  decade 
from  1900  to  1 9 10  has  been  92  per  cent.  The  number 
of  adherents  of  the  congregations  connected  with  the 
Roman  missions  was,  in  191 5,  seventy-one  thousand. 
Their  rate  of  increase  in  the  decade  from  1900  to  19 10 
had  been  10  per  cent.  They  had  been  retarded  in  less 
proportion  than  the  Protestants  during  the  decade  1890 
to  1900.  They  have  gained  in  much  less  proportion 
since  the  change  in  public  sentiment,  which  set  in  about 
the  turn  of  the  century.  Both  facts  are  to  be  interpreted 
in  light  of  the  general  relation  of  the  Roman  church  to 
education,  reform,  and  civil  and  social  progress  in  the 
realm.  That  relation  has  been  intimate  from  the 
beginning  for  the  Protestant  bodies.  They  have  paid 
the  price  of  that  intimate  relation  at  times  in  that  they 
suffered  all  the  vicissitudes  of  changing  popular  opinion. 
The  Roman  church  had  had  at  the  beginning  the  unique 
and  touching  task  of  gathering  again  under  its  leadership 
the  survivors  of  the  Japanese  Christianity  which  had 
been  nearly  exterminated  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  Under  the  guidance  mainly  of  French  mis- 
sionaries it  has  done  with  admirable  spirit  the  works  of 
mercy.  Its  educational  work  has  been  mainly  elemen- 
tary and  mainly  for  its  own  communities.     Within  those 


172  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

limits  this  work  has  been  of  a  high  order.  The  Jesuit 
College  in  Tokyo  was  recognized  by  the  government  as  a 
university  in  19 13.  Pope  Leo  XIII  re-established  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Japan  in  1891  and  consti- 
tuted the  archdiocese  of  Tokyo  with  the  suffragan  sees 
of  Nagasaki,  Osaka,  and  Hakodate,  under  the  immediate 
care  of  the  Missionary  Seminary  at  Paris. 

The  Mission  of  the  Holy  Orthodox  church  in  its 
Russian  branch  to  Japan  deserves  to  be  considered  one 
of  the  romantic  episodes  with  which  in  this  history  we 
have  to  deal.  Its  story  is  almost  identified  with  the 
career  of  the  Archbishop  Nicolai  who  came  to  Hakodate 
in  1 86 1.  For  some  years  he  served  as  a  consular  chap- 
lain while  studying  the  Japanese  language  and  awaiting 
an  opportunity  to  preach  the  Christian  faith.  The 
occasion  came  in  surprising  fashion.  A  samurai  named 
Sawabe,  keeper  of  a  Shinto  shrine,  resolved  to  kill  Nicolai 
as  the  preacher  of  an  evil  morality  and  bent  on  handing 
over  Japan  into  the  power  of  Russia.  He  burst  into 
Nicolai's  room.  The  chaplain  drew  him  on  to  listen  to 
Christian  instruction.  The  two  men  became  friends. 
In  the  end  Sawabe  was  baptized.  When  Nicolai  died  in 
191 2  thirty  thousand  Japanese  were  adherents  of  the 
Russian  church.  He  kindled  afresh  the  zeal  for  missions 
in  the  Russian  church  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  great 
expansion  of  mission  work  in  Siberia  in  his  time.  In  his 
last  years  the  archbishop  gave  himself  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  method  of  training  youth  who  are  to 
serve  as  priests  in  Japan.  Russian  boys  are  brought  in 
early  youth  to  Japan  and  educated  along  with  the  Japa- 
nese who  look  forward  to  the  same  career.  They  share 
the  life  of  the  Japanese  students  in  every  particular.     It 


JAPAN  173 

is  hoped  thus  to  minimize  the  distinction  between  mis- 
sionaries and  the  indigenous  church. 

156.  Conference  of  religions  in  IQ12. — A  step  which 
surely  marked  the  beginning  of  an  era  in  the  religious 
history  of  Japan  was  taken  in  January,  191 2,  when  Mr. 
Tokoname,  vice-minister  of  education,  announced  to  a 
meeting  of  representatives  of  the  press  that  the  govern- 
ment had  decided  to  recognize  Christianity  as  a  religion 
which  it  was  prepared  to  encourage.  Among  other 
things  he  said:  "The  culture  of  national  ethics  can  be 
perfected  by  education  combined  with  religion.  At 
present,  moral  doctrines  are-*  inculcated  by  education 
alone.  It  is  impossible  to  inculcate  fair  and  upright 
ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  nation  unless  the  people  are 
brought  into  touch  with  the  fundamental  conception 
known  as  God,  Buddha,  or  Heaven,  as  taught  in  reli- 
gions." He  ended  by  expressing  the  hope  that  Chris- 
tianity "would  step  out  of  the  narrow  circle  within  which 
it  was  confined  and  endeavor  to  conform  to  the  national 
polity  and  adapt  itself  to  the  national  sentiments  and 
customs  in  order  to  insure  greater  achievements.' '  One 
result  of  this  action  on  the  part  of  the  government  was 
that  a  conference  of  certain  representatives  of  the  three 
religions,  Shinto,  Buddhism,  and  Christianity,  was  held 
on  February  25, 191 2,  which  was  attended  also  by  several 
members  of  the  cabinet.  In  the  distribution  of  honors 
at  the  coronation  of  the  present  Emperor  in  191 5  a 
number  of  Japanese  Christians  of  different  vocations 
were  singled  out  for  honor.  Surely  these  facts  give 
some  measure  of  the  remarkable  change  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  attitude  of  the  nation  toward  Christianity 
since  1868. 


CHAPTER  IX 
CHINA 


CHAPTER  IX 

CHINA 

157.  Earliest  Christian  influences  in  China 

158.  The  question  of  ancestor  worship 

159.  Western  trade  and  Manchu  conquest 

160.  British  trade  and  the  opium  wars 

161.  The  Tai-ping  Rebellion 

162.  The  Tientsin  Treaty  and  the  Dowager  Empress 

163.  Early  Protestant  missions;   Morrison 

164.  Medical  work  and  public  service 

165.  The  China  Inland  Mission 

166.  Missions  until  1900;  educational  work 

167.  Trade  relations;  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs 

168.  Last  years  of  the  old  regime 

169.  The  Boxer  uprising 

170.  Restoration  and  reform 

171.  Recovery  of  missions 

172.  Education 

173.  Modern  medicine 

174.  Christian  literature 

175.  Recent  events 


CHAPTER  IX 
CHINA 

157.  Earliest  Christian  influences  in  China. — There 
has  been  debate  as  to  the  possibility  of  gnostic  Christian 
influence  upon  northern  Buddhism.  Certainly  the 
Buddhism  of  China  and  Japan,  particularly  the  Amida 
doctrine  widely  current  in  the  latter  country,  differs 
from  that  which  prevails  in  Ceylon  and  Burma  and  this 
in  a  manner  rather  suggestive  of  certain  fundamental 
Christian  ideas.  There  is  monumental  evidence  that 
Nestorian  Christian  communities  were  established  at 
Hsianfu  in  the  province  of  Shensi  after  635  a.d.  There 
are  references  in  Chinese  documents  of  about  the  year 
845  which  speak  of  bodies  of  Chinese  Christians  using 
the  Syrian  rite.  After  the  council  of  Lyons  in  1245, 
Franciscans,  responding  to  an  appeal  of  Innocent  IV  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Mongols,  attempted  to  reach 
China.  John  of  Monte  Corvino  arrived  at  Peking  in 
1294.  We  hear  of  a  bishop  of  this  Franciscan  mission 
executed  near  Peking  in  1362.  A  Jew  from  Kaifengfu 
told  Ricci  shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  Christianity  had  disappeared  from  the 
northern  provinces  after  bitter  persecution  not  more 
than  sixty  years  before  the  time  at  which  he  spoke. 
Francis  Xavier  never  reached  the  mainland  of  China, 
which  had  long  been  the  goal  of  his  ambition.  He  died 
in  1552  off  the  coast  of  Kwangtung  province.  His 
body  was  later  removed  to  the  Portuguese  Cathedral 
at  Goa.     He  was  canonized  in  162 1  by  Gregory  XV. 

177 


178  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Thirty  years  after  Xavier's  death  an  Italian  nobleman, 
a  Jesuit  priest,  Matteo  Ricci,  who  had  been  born  in  the 
year  Xavier  died,  came  to  the  neighborhood  of  Canton 
accompanying  an  embassy  from  Macao.  Ingratiating 
himself  with  the  provincial  rulers  he  was  allowed  to 
remain.  Ricci's  methods  were  long  followed  by  mis- 
sionaries to  China.  For  seven  years  he  dressed  as  a 
Buddhist  priest  and  to  the  end  of  his  life  as  one  of  the 
Chinese  literati.  He  assured  the  Chinese  that  the  faith 
which  he  preached  was  the  development  of  the  highest 
principles  of  Buddhism.  He  permitted  his  converts  to 
continue  the  worship  of  ancestors.  He  had  knowledge 
of  geography,  astronomy  and  mathematics,  which 
greatly  interested  the  learned  men  of  China.  He  appears 
to  have  attained  unusual  facility  in  the  writing  of  Chinese 
and  was  the  author  of  books  upon  various  subjects. 
In  1598  he  was  able  to  proceed  to  Nanking,  and  in  1601 
was  summoned  to  Peking,  where  he  died  in  16 10.  He 
had  stood  in  close  relation  with  high  officials.  The  name 
of  no  European  of  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth  century 
was  so  well  known  in  China  as  that  of  Li  Ma-tow,  the 
form  which  Matteo  Ricci  assumed  in  Mandarin  and 
which  appears  in  Chinese  records.  He  was  succeeded 
in  1622  by  Adam  Schall,  a  German  Jesuit.  Reports  of 
the  success  of  the  Jesuit  mission  in  China  reached  Europe 
and  aroused  the  envy  of  rival  orders.  Dominicans 
came  in  1631  and  the  Franciscans  re-entered  the  empire 
in  1633.  Almost  immediately  the  representatives  of 
these  orders  began  to  protest  against  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  the  Jesuits  in  their  work.  Both  in  China 
and  at  Rome  they  assailed  the  position  which  the  Jesuits 
had  taken  with  reference  to  ancestor  worship.    The 


CHINA  1 79 

controversy  was  long  and  hitter.  The  hostility  of  the 
two  groups  of  Christians,  the  one  to  the  other,  did  much 
to  create  prejudice  against  the  mission  cause.  In  1669 
there  are  said  to  have  been  three  hundred  thousand 
baptized  Christians  in  China,  and  in  1692  the  emperor 
Kang  Hsi,  who  reigned  from  1662  to  1725,  and  in 
whose  education  Schall  had  had  part,  legalized  the 
preaching  of  the  Christian  faith  throughout  the  empire. 
The  Manchus  had  overthrown  the  Ming  dynasty  in 
1644,  yet  it  is  clear  that  the  change  of  rulers  had  not 
compromised  the  position  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  court. 

158.  The  question  of  ancestor  worship. — Ricci  had  con- 
tended that  the  honor  paid  to  progenitors  was  purely 
domestic  and  civil  in  its  nature.  It  was  not  worship  in 
the  sense  that  it  militated  against  the  acknowledgment 
of  one  God.  The  Dominicans,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  that  the  ancestral  homage  was  polytheistic 
and  idolatrous.  The  matter  being  referred  to  the  pope, 
Innocent  X  sustained  the  Dominican  view.  The 
Jesuits  dispatched  a  special  agent  to  Rome  and  Alexander 
VII  reversed  the  previous  decision.  A  French  bishop 
in  China  continuing  the  agitation,  the  Jesuits  carried 
the  matter  before  the  emperor  Kang  Hsi.  The  emperor 
declared  the  custom  to  be  domestic  and  political.  The 
homage  to  ancestors  was  merely  a  mark  of  filial  piety  and 
veneration.  As  such  the  rites  might  be  participated  in 
by  men  of  many  faiths.  Exactly  as  such,  however, 
they  were  of  primary  interest  to  the  state.  As  connected 
with  the  family  and  clan  system,  with  the  patriarchal 
order,  which  the  enlightened  Manchu  well  knew  to  be 
the  real  government  of  China,  the  state  must  protect 
them.     In  1704  Clement  XI  recurred  to  the  elder  papal 


180  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

decision  that  the  rites  were  idolatrous.  A  papal  legate 
arriving  in  China  ordered  all  converts  to  desist  from 
practices  interdicted  by  the  pope.  Kang  Hsi  was  not 
the  man  to  take  that  tamely.  He  banished  the  legate 
to  Macao.  Missionaries  were  conducted  to  the  frontier. 
There  was  persecution  of  the  Chinese  Christians.  Mis- 
sionaries and  foreigners  were  never  excluded  from  China 
with  the  thoroughness  which  was  achieved  in  Japan. 
Yet  Kang  Hsi's  successor  destroyed  three  hundred 
churches  and  left  the  Christians  without  the  minis- 
trations of  their  church.  Chienlung  was  an  even 
more  consistent  opponent  of  Christianity.  In  Tong- 
king  the  persecutions  were  exceptionally  severe  and  con- 
tinued with  little  intermission  from  1720  until  the  time 
of  the  French  occupation  in  1883.  Roman  missions, 
generally  under  the  French,  underwent  a  great  revival 
after  the  opening  of  certain  ports  to  foreigners  which 
took  place  in  1842. 

159.  Western  trade  and  Manchu  conquest. — There 
were  occasional  contacts  of  China  with  Europe  through 
traders  and  travelers  after  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan, 
the  Mongol  invader,  who  reigned  at  Cambaluc,  Peking. 
They  had  ceased  long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  151 7.  The  Portuguese  traders  were  assigned 
to  the  tiny  peninsula  of  Macao  in  the  estuary  of  the 
Canton  River.  After  1628  the  little  settlement  had  a 
governor,  appointed  by  the  king  of  Portugal.  It  remains 
in  Portuguese  possession  to  this  day.  The  Ming  rulers 
were  driven  from  their  throne  in  1644  by  the  Manchu 
Tatars  from  Mukden.  In  the  very  years  in  which 
England  was  passing  through  her  Civil  War,  China  fell 
again  under  the  rule  of  the  hated  and  feared  invader 


CHINA  181 

from  the  north  and  west  against  whom  the  Great  Wall 
had  been  built  two  thousand  years  before.  The  Manchus 
never  effectively  conquered  the  country  south  of  the 
Yangtze,  which  has  remained  the  real  China  of  the 
Chinese.  They  were  themselves  in  many  ways  trans- 
formed by  the  superior  culture  of  the  Chinese.  The 
real  transformation  of  China  was  to  take  place,  not 
through  its  conquerors,  but  through  the  civilization  of 
those  merchants  and  missionaries  who  came  over  that 
sea  upon  which  neither  Manchus  nor  Chinese  had  ever 
really  felt  themselves  at  home.  In  1689  Kang  Hsi  saw 
himself  forced  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  Russians,  the 
first  Chinese  treaty  with  a  European  power.  Warrior 
that  he  was  and  indefatigable  in  the  administration  of 
the  state,  Kang  Hsi  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  studies 
of  science  and  literature,  not  a  little  of  it  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Jesuits.  There  are  statues  of  Kang  Hsi 
in  the  garb  of  a  Tibetan  monk. 

160.  British  trade  and  the  opium  wars. — The  East 
India  Company  had  been  granted  a  monopoly  of  British 
trade  with  China.  The  trade  was  chiefly  in  opium,  tea, 
and  silk.  Canton  was  the  great  emporium.  The 
restrictions  upon  trade  were  onerous.  George  III  sent 
an  embassy  under  Lord  Macartney  to  secure  concessions. 
The  embassy  was  a  failure.  Scarcely  less  abortive  was 
the  effort  of  Lord  Amherst  in  18 16,  although  the  emperor 
here  concerned,  Chia  Ching,  had  inherited  none  of  the 
qualities  of  his  ancestors  save  their  pride.  The  event 
of  this  reign  which  was  fraught  with  greatest  conse- 
quences to  China  was  one  which  attracted  little  attention 
at  the  time.  This  was  the  coming  of  the  first  Protestant 
missionary,  Robert  Morrison,  who  reached  Canton  in 


182  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

1807.  Hitherto  Europeans,  traders  and  missionaries 
alike,  had  been  directly  dependent  upon  the  good-will, 
often  upon  the  mere  caprice,  of  the  Chinese.  There  were 
no  established  diplomatic  relations.  The  Chinese  re- 
garded the  Europeans  as  barbarians.  They  had  been 
incensed  when  Ricci  had  showed  them  a  map  in  which  the 
Middle  Kingdom  was  not  in  the  center  of  the  page. 
The  obliging  Jesuit  drew  them  a  map  in  which  China  was 
the  very  center.  Of  the  outside  world  they  had  little 
notion.  They  were  supremely  complacent  in  their  own 
civilization,  which  was  indeed  in  many  ways  of  a  high 
order.  In  the  fourth  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century 
when  the  British  began  to  press  for  larger  trade  privileges 
and  treaty  recognition  there  came  a  bitter  struggle.  In 
that  struggle  China  suffered  great  injustice.  It  was 
more  than  a  misfortune  that  the  item  of  trade  which 
figured  most  largely  in  the  struggle  was  opium,  grown  in 
British  India,  transported  to  China,  and  introduced 
through  the  trade  concessions  granted  to  the  East 
India  Company  at  Canton.  It  is  true  that  the  pride 
and  overweening  confidence  of  the  Chinese  had  led  to 
acts  of  violence  in  which  persons  of  various  vocations 
had  suffered  indignity  or  even  death  under  circumstances 
which  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  opium  trade.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Chinese  authorities  had  for  years  made 
every  representation  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
opium  into  Chinese  territory  from  the  foreign  conces- 
sions. In  1839  the  British  at  Canton,  being  taken  off 
their  guard,  were  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  Chinese 
authorities  large  quantities  of  opium,  which  were  de- 
stroyed by  them.  This  success  led  the  Chinese  imperial 
commissioner,  Lin,  to  make  demands,  concerning  the 


CHINA  183 

opium  traffic  primarily  but  touching  practically  all 
trade,  which  were  so  serious  that  the  British  considered 
them  a  cause  for  war.  Not  unnaturally,  therefore,  the 
struggles  which  followed  have  been  called  the  Opium 
Wars.  The  naval  power  of  Great  Britain  was  vastly 
superior  to  that  of  China.  The  contest  ended  in  the 
ceding  of  Hongkong  to  the  British,  in  the  payment  by 
the  Chinese  of  large  indemnities,  and  in  the  opening  of 
thirteen  ports  to  foreign  trade.  It  is  only  to  be  wondered 
at  that  the  embitterment  of  the  Chinese  was  not  greater 
than  it  was. 

161.  The  Tai-ping  Rebellion. — In  1850  there  broke 
out  in  China  a  rebellion  which  continued  for  fourteen 
years  and  ravaged  nine  provinces.  It  was  called  the 
Tai-ping  Rebellion  and  originated  in  a  just  demand  for 
reforms  long  postponed  by  the  degenerate  Manchu  rulers. 
It  had  at  the  first  as  its  head  a  supposed  descendant 
of  the  old  Ming  dynasty.  The  real  leader,  however,  was 
a  Hakka  man  from  the  neighborhood  of  Canton,  Hung 
Siu-chuan,  who  had  at  one  time  come  into  contact  with 
the  Christian  mission  at  Canton.  He  proclaimed  himself 
as  sent  of  Heaven  to  drive  out  the  Tatars  and  deliver  the 
oppressed.  He  was  certainly  moved  by  the  apocalyptic 
language  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  His  inner 
relation  to  Christianity  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute. 
He  put  forth  ideals  of  virtue  and  at  the  first  maintained 
strict  discipline  in  the  vast  horde  of  malcontents  who 
flocked  to  his  standard  and  whom  he  gradually  trans- 
formed into  a  fighting  army.  The  early  success  of  the 
revolution  was  amazing.  In  1853  Hung  was  enabled 
to  proclaim  himself  heavenly  king  at  Nanking,  the  old 
southern  capital.     From  Amoy  to  Tientsin  and  far  into 


1 84  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  west  his  bands  ravaged  the  country.  They  lived 
off  the  country  and  fell  into  the  gravest  demoralization. 
Hung  himself  developed  all  the  traits  of  a  religious  and 
political  fanatic.  Both  he  and  his  followers  lost  all 
sense  of  concrete  aim.  In  the  end  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment had  to  call  for  foreign  aid  to  put  an  end  to  the 
suffering  and  devastation.  Charles  George  Gordon, 
henceforth  known  as  Chinese  Gordon,  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  government  by  Great  Britain.  The 
movement  had  already  largely  spent  its  force,  but  Gordon 
won  a  decisive  victory,  capturing  Nanking  in  1864. 
Hung  committed  suicide.  Gordon  was  convinced  that 
whatever  may  have  been  the  merits  of  Hung's  claims 
at  the  beginning  of  his  career,  the  movement  had  before 
its  end  reached  such  a  level  of  barbarity  that  right- 
minded  men  were  under  obligation  to  aid  the  imperial 
government  to  re-establish  law  and  order.  On  the  other 
hand  there  is  some  color  for  the  contention  that  had 
Gordon  and  the  British  not  aided  them  the  Manchus 
might  have  been  overthrown  fifty  years  before  the  revolu- 
tion which  finally  forced  their  abdication  in  191 2.  In  so 
far  as  the  Chinese  gave  credence  to  the  claim  of  Hung  to 
be  a  Christian  the  Tai-ping  Rebellion  certainly  did  not 
improve  the  public  opinion  of  Christianity.  The  per- 
sonal conduct  of  a  man  like  Gordon  stood  out,  however, 
in  high  relief  against  that  of  even  so  distinguished  a 
Chinese  statesman  as  Li  Hung-chang,  the  imperial 
leader  in  the  war. 

162.  The  Tientsin  Treaty  and  the  Dowager  Empress. — 
Nothing  in  the  crisis  through  which  the  empire  was 
passing  had  prevented  the  English  from  conducting  two 
short    wars  against  the  imperial  government,  in  one 


CHINA  185 

of  which  Canton  was  captured  in  1858  and  in  the  other 
the  allied  armies,  British  and  French,  advanced  to 
Peking  and  burned  the  summer  palace.  The  issue 
of  these  wars,  the  so-called  Treaty  of  Tientsin  in  i860, 
guaranteed  the  right  of  foreigners  to  travel  in  the  interior 
and  secured  the  freedom  of  preaching  and  confession 
of  Christianity.  The  importing  of  opium  was  legalized 
in  the  same  document.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  a  more 
preposterous  and  disastrous  conjunction  for  the  Chris- 
tian cause.  Before  the  end  of  the  Tai-ping  Rebellion 
there  appeared  as  co-regent  and  guardian,  first  for  her 
own  son  and  then  later  for  Kwang  Hsu,  who  died  in  1908, 
that  remarkable  woman,  Tzu  Hsi,  generally  known  as 
the  Dowager  Empress.  During  all  these  years  she  was 
the  real  ruler  of  China.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
ability  in  whom  for  a  moment  the  traits  of  the  old  Man- 
chus  were  again  revealed.  It  is  small  wonder  if  the 
things  which  the  Chinese  had  suffered  from  the  British 
and  from  the  French  in  their  seizure  of  Tongking  in  1884 
and  from  the  Germans  in  their  taking  of  Kiaochau  in 
1898,  led  to  occasional  outbreaks  and  reprisals.  Mis- 
sionaries were  often  the  victims.  More  often  than  any 
other  class  of  persons  they  were  found  far  in  the  interior. 
Undoubtedly  their  propaganda  touched  the  Chinese  upon 
a  sensitive  spot.  Many  causes  combined  to  bring  the 
hatred  of  all  the  influences  of  Christendom  and  Chris- 
tianity to  expression  in  the  Boxer  uprising  of  1900. 
This  event  is  the  turning-point  in  the  modern  history 
of  China.  Before  we  speak  of  it,  however,  we  may  seek 
to  describe  the  Christian  propaganda  during  the  century 
which  followed  the  coming  of  Robert  Morrison  to  Canton 
in  1807. 


1 86  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

163.  Early  Protestant  missions;  Morrison. — Morrison 
was  the  first  Protestant  missionary  to  China.  He  was  a 
Scotchman  but  had  spent  most  of  his  youth  in  Newcastle. 
He  had  been  apprenticed  to  a  maker  of  lasts  and  studied 
while  at  work.  He  studied  theology  with  his  minister, 
but  was  for  a  time  at  the  Independent  Theological 
Academy  at  Hoxton.  He  was  appointed  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society  in  1804.  Such  was  the  hostility  of 
the  Chinese  to  the  English  apropos  of  the  trade  in  opium 
that  he  was  obliged  to  sail  in  an  American  vessel  from 
New  York.  He  found  the  way  to  the  preaching  *  of  the 
gospel  barred  and  set  about  the  translation  of  the  Bible. 
He  rightly  felt  the  power  of  the  appeal  to  the  Chinese 
through  their  literary  class.  He  became  a  translator 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company.  In  18 10  he 
began  the  publication  of  his  New  Testament.  In  18 18 
he  had  finished  the  translation  of  the  whole  Bible. 
Meantime  he  had  issued  a  Chinese  grammar,  the  first 
written  by  a  European.  In  182 1  his  vast  work,  the 
Chinese  dictionary,  was  published  at  the  cost  of  the 
Company.  He  had  been  interested  in  the  beginnings  of 
medical  work.  He,  with  Dr.  Milne,  had  founded  the 
Anglo- Chinese  College  at  Malacca  which  was  afterward 
removed  to  Hongkong.  Seven  years  after  his  arrival 
in  Canton  he  baptized  his  first  convert,  one  of  his  lan- 
guage teachers.  Morrison  died  in  1834,  having  seen, 
so  far  as  we  know,  ten  Chinese  baptized  in  the  Christian 
faith.  His  work  upon  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
has  been  often  revised.  His  dictionary  has  been  largely 
superseded.  The  difficulty  of  the  task  which  was  thus 
essayed  for  the  first  time  by  a  European  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.     One  of  Morrison's  staunch  helpers  was 


CHINA  187 

Karl  Giitzlaff.  Educated  at  Halle,  he  came  to  Batavia 
under  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  in  1826. 
After  1828  he  was  in  China  as  an  independent  missionary. 
He  was  active  both  in  literary  and  in  medical  work.  He 
knew  Chinese  so  well  that  he  fulfilled  several  commis- 
sions for  the  British  government  disguised  as  a  Chinese 
man.  He  believed  that  the  prosecution  of  mission  work 
in  China  would  never  be  successful  until  it  was  done  in 
large  part  by  the  Chinese  themselves. 

164.  Medical  work  and  public  service. — In  the  year 
of  Morrison's  death  Peter  Parker  was  appointed  by  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
as  its  first  medical  missionary.  He  opened  a  hospital 
at  Canton  for  diseases  of  the  eye.  He  soon  found  him- 
self obliged  to  admit  patients  suffering  from  other  dis- 
eases. He  educated  young  Chinese  in  the  practice  of 
medicine  and  surgery.  He  was  temporarily  driven  out 
of  Canton  at  the  time  of  the  opium  wars  and  returned 
as  interpreter  to  the  United  States  legation  in  China, 
resigning  that  post  only  in  1 85 5 .  He  was  plenipotentiary 
of  his  country  for  the  revision  of  treaties  in  1844.  In 
recognition  of  his  scientific  attainments  he  was  elected 
a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  in  Washington  in 
1868.  Parker's  day  in  China  was  the  time  of  the  up- 
building of  American  trade  in  China  and  of  the  friend- 
ship with  China,  which  in  some  sense  has  remained  unim- 
paired to  this  day.  The  Americans  profited  by  the 
revulsion  against  the  English  because  of  the  opium 
question.  American-Chinese  trade  was  largely  a  New 
England  trade  and  China  became  for  the  time  the 
greatest  of  the  fields  of  the  American  Board.  The 
typical  figure  in  this  era  was  perhaps  Elijah  Bridgman, 


1 88  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

an  Amherst  College  and  Andover  Seminary  man,  who 
lived  first  at  Canton  and  Hongkong  and  later  at  Shang- 
hai. Author,  editor,  translator,  as  well  as  preacher,  he 
was  secretary  of  the  Caleb  Cushing  embassy  to  China 
and  adviser  of  the  representatives  of  the  four  powers  in 
the  making  of  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin.  He  was  perhaps 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  life  of  the  foreign 
communities  of  Canton  and  Shanghai  than  any  other 
missionary.  Scarcely  less  notable  for  versatility  and 
influence  was  S.  Wells  Williams.  A  graduate  of  the 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  he  was  sent  out  by  the 
American  Board  in  1833.  He  established  a  press  at 
Canton  and  was  all  his  life  interested  in  the  production 
of  Christian  literature  for  China  and  Japan.  He  knew 
Japanese  and  had  a  share  in  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  that  language.  He  was  for  many 
years  connected  as  interpreter  with  the  American  lega- 
tion. He  was  the  author  of  many  books  of  permanent 
value.  His  Middle  Kingdom  is  a  standard  work  upon 
the  China  which  has  largely  disappeared  in  the  great 
changes  of  recent  years.  In  his  last  days  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Chinese  in  Yale  College  and  president  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  In  this  group  of  pioneers 
mention  should  be  made  also  of  Bishop  Boone,  who  was 
sent  out  by  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  in  America  and  consecrated  bishop  in 
1844.  Boone  College  in  Wuchang  bears  his  name.  The 
London  Missionary  Society  was  represented  by  several 
distinguished  men  during  this  early  period.  The  best 
known  of  them  was  Dr.  Legge,  who  came  to  Malacca 
in  1839  to  take  charge  of  the  Anglo-Chinese  College  and 
continued  in  its  leadership  after  its  removal  to  Hongkong. 


CHINA  189 

In  later  life  he  was  professor  of  Chinese  in  the  University 
of  Oxford  and  translated  considerable  portions  of  the 
Chinese  classics  into  English.  Medhurst,  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  linguists  who  ever  served  on  the 
missionary  staff  in  China,  was  at  Shanghai  until  1856 
and  did  notable  work  in  connection  with  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures.  He  also  was  a  representative  of  the 
London  Society,  as  was  Lockhart,  the  founder  of  medical 
work  and  more  particularly  of  medical  instruction  at 
Peking  in  1839.  When  one  considers  the  number  of 
men  of  mark  whose  lives  were  given  to  the  cause  of 
Protestant  missions  in  China  in  the  years  from  1807  to 
1850,  the  date  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Tai-ping  Rebellion, 
it  seems  strange  to  say  that  it  is  doubtful  if  at  the  latter 
date  there  were  a  hundred  converts  to  Christianity  in 
China.  Almost  half  a  century  had  passed  in  the  bare 
laying  of  foundations.  In  1834,  when  near  his  death, 
Morrison  had  said  that  he  thought  that  in  a  century 
there  might  be  perhaps  a  thousand  Christians  in  China. 
When  a  quarter  of  a  century  had  passed  it  looked  as 
if  that  modest  prophecy  would  hardly  be  fulfilled. 

165.  The  China  Inland  Mission. — Certainly  there 
was  nothing  in  the  history  of  foreign  relations  with 
China  in  the  decade  of  the  fifties  to  improve  the  pros- 
pects of  the  Christian  movement.  The  war  with  the 
allied  powers  which  began  over  the  affair  of  a  trading 
ship,  "The  Arrow,"  had  ended  in  the  burning  of  the 
summer  palace  at  Peking  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin, 
which  represented  helpless  China's  further  concessions 
in  the  face  of  overwhelming  force.  Life  in  the  treaty 
ports  had  settled  into  a  routine.  If  representatives  of 
what  was  good  in  Europe  and  America  were  present, 


I  go  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

representatives  of  every  evil  in  Western  civilization 
were  in  evidence  as  well.  The  very  existence  of  treaty 
ports  and  the  conditions  of  extraterritoriality  were 
exasperating  to  the  Chinese.  There  was  no  chance  to 
reach  the  masses  of  the  Chinese  of  the  interior,  as  yet 
unprejudiced  by  sinister  foreign  contacts.  Now  the 
opportunity  was  given.  Moreover,  the  ravages  of  the 
Tai-ping  Rebellion  had  created  conditions  of  such  appall- 
ing misery  and  destitution  that  missionaries  who  would 
give  themselves  to  works  of  mercy  were  assured  of 
welcome.  There  arose  in  the  China  Inland  Mission 
a  new  missionary  instrumentality  adapted  to  this  situa- 
tion. The  founder,  Hudson  Taylor,  an  Englishman, 
had  been  in  China  under  the  Chinese  Evangelization 
Society  since  1853.  Like  many  men  destined  to  be 
innovators  he  did  not  work  well  in  the  conventional 
harness.  In  1862  he  became  an  independent  missionary 
and  gathered  to  him  such  as  shared  his  convictions. 
The  problems  of  inland  China,  as  yet  almost  untouched, 
drew  him.  Bound  by  no  denominational  tenets  he 
appealed  for  volunteers  from  many  branches  of  the 
Christian  church.  Their  doctrinal  bond  was,  however, 
the  staunchest  evangelicalism.  The  workers  had  no 
salaries  but  trusted  that  under  God  they  should  never 
suffer  want.  The  mission  soon  became  international 
as  well  as  interdenominational.  It  employed  single 
women  in  its  work  in  a  proportion  never  known  before, 
sending  them  often  into  the  remotest  places.  The 
missionaries  frequently  found  it  convenient  to  dress  in 
Chinese  clothes  and  to  live  more  or  less  after  the 
Chinese  manner.  In  the  earlier  days  they  concerned 
themselves  little  with  educational  work,  except  the  most 


CHINA 


191 


rudimentary,  and  not  at  all  with  medical  work.  The 
wisest  of  their  own  number  would  probably  not  have 
contended  that  all  the  work  which  needed  to  be  done  for 
the  Chinese  could  be  best  done  in  this  way.  They  filled 
a  place,  however,  in  the  opening  of  China  to  the  gospel 
which  no  other  mission  has  filled.  They  manifested 
often  a  Franciscan-like  devotion  in  dealing  with  the  most 
difficult  and  disheartening  aspects  of  the  Chinese  prob- 
lem. Only  those  who  know  the  difficulties  and  trials 
of  life  in  the  heart  of  China,  with  the  dangers  and  hard- 
ships of  long  journeys,  can  appreciate  what  their  mis- 
sionary touring  meant.  In  many  instances  these 
journeys  were  accomplished  by  women  for  the  sake  of 
reaching  the  women  of  Szechuan  and  Yunnan.  The 
great  strength  of  the  China  Inland  Mission  has  been  in 
pioneering.  In  this  respect  it  has  done  unrivaled  work. 
166.  Missions  until  igoo;  educational  work. — In  few 
countries  have  the  pioneer  missionaries  waited  so  long 
for  visible  results  of  their  labors.  This  fact  is  the  more 
significant  because  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  China 
during  very  recent  years  seems  likely  to  surpass  the  gain 
in  any  large  non-Christian  country.  Even  in  1877  the 
total  number  of  Protestant  converts  was  reckoned  at  but 
thirteen  thousand.  Protestant  missionaries  had  been 
seventy  years  in  the  country.  The  Church  Missionary 
Society,  which  had  come  to  China  in  1850,  worked  in 
Foochow  for  ten  years  without  a  single  convert.  The 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  did  not 
definitely  begin  work  in  China  until  1874,  when  Rev. 
C.  P.  Scott,  afterward  Bishop  of  North  China,  was  sent 
to  Chefoo  and  later  to  Peking.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  the  Church  Missionary  Society  has  worked  in 


1 92  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Middle  and  South  China  and  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  North  China.  The  late  date  of 
the  commencement  of  work  upon  the  part  of  either  of 
them  in  China  is  noteworthy  when  one  thinks  how  old 
and  how  preponderant  were  British  trade  relations  in 
China.  The  decade  of  the  seventies  brought  to  Shang- 
hai the  interesting  figure  of  Bishop  Schereschewsky,  a 
Russian  Jew,  converted  in  America  and  sent  out  by  the 
American  Episcopal  church.  He  was  a  linguist  of 
excellence  and  the  founder  of  St.  John's  College  at 
Shanghai  in  1877.  Great  numbers  of  new  missionaries 
came  to  China  in  this  period.  Hardly  a  major  board  in 
any  country  was  unrepresented.  Progress  was  made  in 
the  development  of  the  Chinese  churches.  Yet  as  a 
rule  they  remained  in  notable  degree  churches  of  the 
missions,  with  the  missionaries  in  their  leadership. 
The  truth  was  that  the  leading  classes  among  the  Chinese 
were  not  yet  widely  touched.  Leadership  in  China  was 
everywhere  in  the  hands  of  the  intellectuals.  The  lit- 
erati bred  in  the  old  classical  culture  were  profoundly 
conservative.  Public  office  was  everywhere  held  on  the 
basis  of  examinations  in  the  ancient  literature.  The 
official  class  was  therefore  bound  to  the  existing  system. 
Foreign  learning  was  feared  when  it  was  not  despised. 
Those  who  sought  it  were  esteemed  to  have  turned 
against  their  country  and  allied  themselves  with  the 
hated  foreigner.  In  these  circumstances  it  is  a  matter 
for  wonder  that  the  schools  and  colleges  established  by 
the  missions  succeeded  as  well  as  they  did.  In  this 
period  between  1865  and  1900  were  founded  almost  all 
the  colleges  and  higher  schools,  like  those  at  Foochow 
and  Canton  and  again  at  Shanghai,  Peking,  Nanking, 


CHINA  193 

and  Hankow.  These  institutions,  in  almost  every  case 
denominational  in  their  origin,  have  since  1902  and 
more  particularly  since  1913  entered  into  union  move- 
ments. The  University  of  Peking  originally  established 
by  the  American  Methodists  is  such  a  union  institution. 
Canton  Christian  College  has  been  interdenominational 
from  the  beginning.  These  have  put  themselves  in  a 
position  of  real  leadership  now  that  China  has  gone 
over  completely  to  the  cultivation  of  Western  learning 
and  while  the  government  institutions  are  still  unde- 
veloped. Into  this  period  go  back  also  many  of  the 
hospitals  and  medical  schools  which  at  first  encountered 
great  opposition  from  the  side  of  the  popular  supersti- 
tions. These  medical  schools  and  colleges,  often  with 
very  inadequate  means  and  almost  doomed  to  fall 
behind  in  the  rapid  progress  of  medicine  and  surgery  in 
Western  lands,  yet  opened  the  way.  To  the  men  of 
distinction  in  educational  circles  in  this  period  belonged 
Martin  and  Sheffield  and  Richard,  and  in  medical 
circles  Kerr  and  Christie. 

167.  Trade  relations;  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs. 
— Throughout  this  period  relations  with  foreign  nations 
were  unsatisfactory.  The  conditions  of  security  left 
much  to  be  desired.  The  mind  of  the  nation  was  hostile 
and  there  was  much  suspicion.  When  concessions  began 
grudgingly  to  be  granted  to  European  capitalists  to 
build  railways  and  set  up  telegraph  lines  and  open  mines 
the  Chinese  were  almost  always  at  a  disadvantage 
because  of  their  ignorance  of  such  matters.  They  were 
infuriated  to  find  their  credulity  abused  and  their 
country's  riches  exploited  before  their  eyes  all  the  while 
that  China's  millions  were  so  lamentably  poor.     One  of 


194  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  best  influences  in  China  during  this  period  was  the 
Chinese  Imperial  Maritime  Customs,  from  1863  to  1907 
under  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Hart.  The  Tai- 
ping  Rebellion  had  destroyed  the  old  administration  of 
the  customs  at  Shanghai.  The  substitutes  offered  were 
unacceptable  to  the  foreigners.  Finally  a  joint  adminis- 
tration was  devised  which  was  to  be  a  department  under 
the  imperial  government  but  with  an  international 
service  bearing  the  responsibility.  In  1863  Hart  was 
made  the  head  of  the  customs.  In  fact  he  became  the 
intermediary  between  China  and  the  outside  world  in 
many  relations.  He  was  trusted  by  the  Chinese  as  few 
foreigners  have  been.  On  the  other  hand  he  was  unoffi- 
cial adviser  of  ambassadors.  He  saw  things  in  extraor- 
dinary measure  from  the  Chinese  point  of  view.  In  the 
whole  period  of  his  service  he  returned  to  England  for 
but  two  short  intervals.  The  customs  service  set  an 
example  of  incorruptibility  which  was  sorely  needed. 
Because  of  its  efficiency  many  tasks  not  originally 
contemplated  in  its  establishment  were  committed  to  its 
charge.  The  postal,  telegraph,  and  telephone  service 
was  organized  by  it  and  the  charting  of  the  coast  with 
the  building  of  lighthouses  was  under  its  charge.  Hart 
was  one  of  those  besieged  in  the  legation  area  in  1900. 
He  had  firmly  believed  that  no  such  catastrophe  could 
take  place.  He  lost  invaluable  records  of  his  life-work 
because  of  this  confidence.  He  maintained  entire  faith  in 
the  Chinese  even  after  that  crisis.  He  was  throughout 
his  long  career  a  friend  of  missions  and  believed  in  the 
ultimate  success  of  the  Christian  movement  in  China. 

168.  Last  years  of  the  old  regime. — France  took  Tong- 
king  from  China  in  1883.     Conflict  with  England  was 


CHINA  195 

only  narrowly  escaped  at  the  time  of  the  Yunnan  rebel- 
lion. Japan  was  held  to  have  fomented  trouble  in 
Korea  and  in  1895  inflicted  a  serious  defeat  upon  the 
Chinese,  who  lost  Formosa  and  the  Liaotung  Peninsula 
with  the  incomparable  fortress  of  Port  Arthur  and  the 
city  and  harbor  of  Tai-lien-wan,  or  Dalny  as  the  Rus- 
sians called  it.  To  be  sure  Japan  was  in  turn  deprived 
of  a  good  part  of  the  fruits  of  her  victory  by  a  group  of 
the  European  powers.  Russia  finally  secured  Port 
Arthur  and  gave  occasion  for  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 
Germany  seized  Kiaochau,  ostensibly  as  penalty  for 
the  murder  of  two  Bavarian  Jesuits.  England  took 
Weihaiwai  to  offset  the  acquisitions  of  the  other  two. 
The  Russians  had  built  the  Siberian  road  through  Man- 
churia and  acted  as  if  they  already  owned  the  province. 
It  looked  as  if  China  was  on  the  way  to  complete  dis- 
memberment. The  powers  underestimated  the  resent- 
ment which  these  things  stirred  in  all  classes  of  society. 
There  were  those  in  China  to  whom  the  driving  out  of 
foreigners  and  the  return  of  China  to  the  old  ways 
became  the  goal  of  all  desire.  There  were  others  who 
saw  more  clearly  and  realized  that  the  only  thing  which 
could  save  China  was  to  enter  upon  the  course  which 
Japan  had  already  taken.  She  must  adopt  and  adapt 
such  elements  of  Western  civilization  as  would  enable 
her  to  resist  her  foes.  Certain  men  in  high  station  held 
these  views.  Especially  in  the  south  among  the  real 
Chinese  there  were  men  who  had  been  in  England  and 
America  and  who  were  pronounced  radicals.  In  1898 
a  strange  thing  happened.  The  emperor  Kwang  Hsu, 
who  had  been  upon  the  throne  since  1875  Dut  wholly 
suppressed   by   the   Dowager,    apparently   decided    to 


1 96  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

assert  himself.  He  issued  edicts  of  reform  covering 
many  weighty  matters  and  anticipating  steps  which 
China  was  to  take  only  after  several  miserable  years. 
The  edicts  showed  high  intelligence  and  a  very  modern 
spirit.  There  is  much  mystery  about  the  personality  of 
Kwang  Hsii.  He  was  surrounded  by  enthusiasts  for 
the  new  era  which  he  was  supposed  to  be  inaugurating. 
Yet  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  Dowager  and  was  kept  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  a  prisoner  on  an  island  in  the  garden 
of  the  summer  palace.  His  advisers  were  banished  or 
beheaded,  save  two,  Kang  Yu-wei  and  Sun  Yat-sen, 
who  lived  to  take  part  in  the  revolution  of  19 13.  The 
conservatives  seemed  more  securely  intrenched  than 
ever.  There  were  warnings  that  the  popular  mind  was 
turning  to  the  thought  of  the  destruction  of  all  for- 
eigners in  the  country.  Diplomatic  and  business  people 
as  a  rule  disbelieved  these  rumors.  Suddenly,  in  June, 
1900,  with  almost  unexampled  fury  the  storm  broke. 
China  had  always  been  full  of  secret  societies.  One  of 
these  bore  a  name  which  signified  that  its  members 
were  ready  to  use  their  fists  in  upholding  righteousness. 
Somebody  translated  this  title  by  the  word  "boxer," 
so  the  midsummer  madness  of  1900  has  been  known  as 
the  Boxer  uprising.  It  was  the  last  flaming  out  of  the 
old  passion.  It  was  the  turning-point  in  Chinese  history, 
the  unintentional  inauguration  of  the  new  era. 

169.  The  Boxer  uprising. — The  Boxer  society,  what- 
ever there  may  have  been  of  it,  was  but  the  smallest 
part  of  the  constituency  which  the  rising  gathered  to 
itself.  Whole  provinces  were  found  to  have  been  for 
months  quivering  in  expectancy  of  some  blow  to  be  dealt 
to  the  hated  civilization  which  was  being  thrust  upon 


CHINA  197 

an  unwilling  nation.  Shantung,  the  proud  province  of 
Confucius,  upon  whose  shores  much  of  the  violence  we 
have  spoken  of  had  taken  place,  Chihli,  the  province  of 
the  capital,  where  strangers  were  much  in  evidence,  and 
Shansi,  the  abode  of  a  particularly  intense  conservative 
sentiment,  were  the  main  centers.  Yet  at  moments  it 
seemed  as  if  all  of  Northern  and  Eastern  China  would  be 
involved.  The  Dowager's  government  was  unquestion- 
ably deeply  compromised.  Missionaries  and  those  who 
knew  the  language,  the  rural  districts,  and  the  common 
people  had  given  warning  for  months.  On  June  20  the 
ambassador  of  Germany  was  shot  in  the  streets  of  Peking 
on  his  way  to  the  Foreign  Office.  The  chancellor  of  the 
Japanese  legation  had  been  killed  a  day  or  two  before. 
The  offer  of  the  Empress  to  send  all  the  legations  to 
Tientsin  was  rejected  by  them  as  a  trap.  By  evening 
of  that  day  the  legations  of  every  greater  nation  in  the 
world  were  besieged  within  the  legation  area  and  all  com- 
munication with  the  outside  world  cut  off.  The  lega- 
tion guards  were  relatively  few  in  number.  They  had 
ammunition  but  almost  no  material  for  barricades. 
They  had  insufficient  food.  Foreigners  of  every  nation, 
traders,  travelers,  missionaries,  had  fled  to  the  legations 
in  the  last  few  days  before  the  outbreak.  Protestant 
Christians  from  among  the  Chinese  arrived  also  in 
considerable  numbers.  There  were  in  all  about  three 
thousand  persons  in  the  besieged  area.  They  endured 
siege  for  fifty-five  days.  Had  the  Chinese  been  united 
in  purpose  and  had  they  had  the  ultimate  courage  of 
their  undertaking  the  resistance  could  hardly  have 
continued  forty-eight  hours.  Meantime,  about  the 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in  Peking  similar  scenes  were 


198  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

being  enacted.  Here  the  heroic  French  bishop  with  the 
priests  and  nuns  and  thousands  of  converts  had  been 
trapped.  They  held  out  to  the  end  although  here  the 
loss  of  life  was  very  great.  Troops  of  the  various  allied 
nations  were  hurried  to  the  port  of  Tientsin.  An 
expeditionary  force  finally  marched  up  the  valley  of  the 
Pei-ho  and  relieved  Peking.  The  Dowager  and  the 
passive  little  Emperor  fled  from  one  gate  of  the  city  as 
the  allies  entered  at  another.  The  armies  occupied 
Peking  until  October,  1901.  The  court  remained  in 
security  in  far  Shensi.  The  rising  was  finally  put  down, 
not  so  much  by  foreign  troops  as  by  governors  and  others 
who  began  to  see  the  bearing  of  the  episode  upon  the 
future  of  their  land.  Most  prominent  of  these  was  Yuan 
Shi-kai,  who  had  done  what  he  dared  to  prevent  the 
slaughter  in  his  province.  He  now  became  the  go- 
between  of  the  allies  and  his  imperial  mistress.  In  this 
uprising  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries, men  and  women,  had  been  killed,  and  fifty- 
eight  children  in  their  families.  Thirty-five  Roman 
Catholic  priests  and  nine  sisters  fell  a  sacrifice.  The 
total  number  of  foreigners  of  all  occupations  who  per- 
ished is  not  accurately  known.  Surveying  and  prospect- 
ing parties  caught  in  remote  places  fared  as  badly  as 
the  missionaries.  The  heaviest  blow  fell,  however,  on 
the  Chinese  Christians.  These  were  felt  to  have  allied 
themselves  in  inner  conviction  with  the  hated  foreigner. 
In  many  places  they  were  offered  immunity  if  they  would 
recant  and  were  tortured  when  they  refused.  Not  less 
than  sixteen  thousand  sealed  their  faith  with  their  blood. 
The  fact  is  remarkable  because  the  Christian  cause  was 
still  exotic  in  large  degree  in  China.     It  had  not  achieved 


CHINA  199 

any  great  measure  of  naturalization  in  the  empire.  It 
was  not  surprising  that  the  Chinese,  roused  to  fury 
against  everything  foreign,  should  feel  that  the  Chinese 
Christians  were  even  worse  than  the  aliens,  for  they  were 
traitors  to  their  own  land. 

170.  Restoration  and  reform. — The  restoration  of  the 
Dowager's  government  was  finally  agreed  upon  by  the 
powers  as  the  only  solution  of  an  international  difficulty 
which  grew  greater  rather  than  less  as  time  advanced. 
That  proud  and  able  woman  came  back  to  her  palace 
under  humiliating  conditions.  Expiations  of  exemplary 
character  were  demanded.  Indemnities  of  colossal 
magnitude  were  exacted.  More  than  half  of  the  Ameri- 
can indemnity  was  later  returned  with  the  provision 
that  the  income  be  used  for  the  education  of  Chinese 
youth  in  America.  Certain  reforms  were  insisted  on. 
The  foreign  office  was  put  upon  a  new  basis.  Many  of 
the  things  which  the  Emperor  and  his  party  had  decreed 
in  1898  were,  in  1901  and  1902,  set  in  operation  by  the 
Empress,  who  had  formerly  resisted  them.  That  she  had 
connived  at  the  plot  for  the  expulsion  of  foreigners  was 
not  doubted.  Now  she  set  about  the  transformation  of 
China  by  the  adoption  of  elements  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion which  would  enable  China  ultimately  to  maintain 
her  national  integrity  and  take  her  place  among  modern 
people  as  Japan  had  done.  There  came  an  era  of  build- 
ing of  railways  and  developing  of  industries,  of  the  train- 
ing of  an  army  after  Western  fashion,  and  of  the  laying 
of  great  plans  for  education  of  all  classes  in  the  Western 
learning  which  had  been  but  recently  despised.  The 
plans  were  often  laid  with  high  intelligence.  There 
was  lacking  any  adequate  body  of  trained  men  to  carry 


200  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

them  out.  The  strong  democratic  disposition  of  the 
Chinese  manifested  itself.  There  was  never  any  such 
conceded  leadership  in  China  as  was  furnished  in  Japan 
at  the  corresponding  moment  by  the  surviving  spirit  of 
the  feudal  system.  Reforms  have  had  to  be  carried 
through  by  parties.  Yet  parties  and  their  responsible 
management  are  one  of  the  last  achievements  of  a 
people  familiar  with  the  principles  of  self-government. 
171.  Recovery  of  missions. — The  recovery  of  the 
Christian  cause  in  China  after  the  catastrophe  of  1900 
was  extraordinarily  rapid.  Not  only  was  the  whole 
religious  and  philanthropic  world  stirred  to  feel  that  for 
the  moment  China  was  the  land  of  limitless  opportunity; 
not  only  did  those  interested  in  education  and  medicine 
now  feel  that  they  were  sure  of  privileges  which  had 
never  been  accorded  them;  not  only  did  right-minded 
men  in  Christendom  feel  that  whatever  were  the  errors 
and  crimes  of  China  in  1900,  these  were  in  large  part 
provoked  by  the  errors  and  crimes  of  Christendom  in 
its  dealing  with  China  in  the  century  preceding;  the 
Chinese  themselves  now  set  out  on  their  own  part  to 
make  reparations.  They  appreciated  that  missionaries 
and  philanthropists  had  been  long  trying  to  lead  them 
along  a  path  which  now  they  themselves  had  come  to 
wish  to  tread.  They  realized  that  in  treading  it  they 
were  not  necessarily  untrue  to  their  own  race.  Mission 
schools  and  colleges  were  crowded  with  the  sons  of 
Chinese  families  still  loyal  to  Confucianism,  whereas 
before  they  had  often  had  but  few  pupils  save  those 
gathered  from  the  homes  of  converts  in  the  Christian 
church.  The  number  of  communicants  in  the  churches 
increased  in  notable  degree.     In  1907  there  was  held 


CHINA  201 

in  Shanghai  an  international  conference  concerning 
missionary  interests  in  China.  It  marked  the  lapse  of  a 
hundred  years  since  Morrison  came  to  Canton.  It  was 
still  essentially  a  missionaries'  conference.  Independent 
development  of  the  indigenous  churches  and  of  Chinese 
leadership  has  come  largely  in  the  ten  years  which  have 
passed  since  the  Morrison  Centenary.  Yet  some  impres- 
sive facts  became  evident.  There  were  in  that  year  3 ,445 
Anglican  and  Protestant  foreign  missionaries  in  service 
in  China,  representing  sixty-three  boards  or  societies. 
There  were  9,904  Chinese  preachers  and  teachers. 
There  were  178,251  communicant  members  connected 
with  churches  under  these  missions.  In  many  missions 
and  for  several  years  the  rate  of  increase  in  the  com- 
municant membership  of  the  churches  had  been  from 
20  to  30  per  cent  per  year.  When  one  remembers  that 
the  corresponding  figure  in  the  United  States  is  a  little 
over  2  per  cent  he  perceives  the  gain  which  has  been 
made.  The  China  Mission  Year  Book  for  19 18  gives 
268,652  as  the  number  of  Protestant  communicant 
members,  and  the  total  Chinese  constituency  as  526,108. 
The  Roman  church  had,  in  19 18,  1,409  foreign  priests, 
906  Chinese  priests,  1,956,205  communicants.  There 
is  difficulty  in  comparison  of  these  figures  as  between 
the  two  great  branches  of  the  church  because  of  the 
difference  of  the  custom  of  the  churches  in  reference  to 
communicant  membership.  But  it  may  be  safely  said 
that  there  is  one  Christian  communicant  for  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  of  the  Chinese  population. 

172.  Education. — The  educational  situation  in  these 
early  years  of  the  transformation  of  China  presents 
marked  contrast  with  that  which  we  observed  as  to  the 


202  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

beginnings  in  the  case  of  Japan.     The  reforms  of  the 
eventful  years  1902  to  1904  did  indeed  provide  for  a 
system  of  public  instruction  of  the  most  extensive  sort. 
There  was  to  be  a  university  in  each  province  with  the 
appropriate  secondary  schools  leading  up  to  it.     There 
were  to  be  technical  schools  of  every  sort.     Of  these 
China  stands  in  greatest  need.     Gradually  lower  schools 
were  to  be  developed.     Compulsory  attendance  was  to 
be  demanded,  as  in  Japan.     Foreign  professors  were  to 
have  place  in  the  faculties  for  a  time  only.     Chinese 
men  were  to  be  fitted  as  soon  as  possible  to  take  over 
these    responsibilities.     Youth    of    ability    and    under 
careful  selection  have  been  in  process  of  education  in 
Europe  and  America  for  every  kind  of  public  service. 
In  America  especially  the  indemnity  scholarships  have 
opened  an  unusual  number  of  opportunities.     Financial 
and  political  questions  have  made  difficult  the  carrying 
out  of  the  grand  scheme.     Part  of  the  plan  has  been  m 
abeyance  and  the  execution  of  the  parts  attempted  has 
left  much  to  be  desired.     The  mission  schools  and  col- 
leges and  professional  schools  were  old  in  China  before 
the  opening  of  the  new  era.     In  Japan  they  were  never 
permitted  until  the  national  schools  had  been  already 
established  and  were  being  developed  with  such  effi- 
ciency that  the  Christian  schools  could  hardly  be  their 
competitors.     The  Chinese  portion  of  the  staff  of  the 
government  schools  was  at  first  taken  mainly  from  youth 
educated  in  the  mission  schools.     The  mission  colleges 
and  universities  were  thus  able  to  render  a  unique  service 
in  respect  of  Western  learning.     They  found  themselves 
suddenly  viewed  with  a  veneration  the  more  striking 
when  compared  with  the  obloquy  which  they  had  long 


CHINA  203 

endured.  They  will  not  always  hold  this  precedence 
when  once  national  affairs  permit  the  proper  evolution 
of  the  government  plans.  The  best  of  them  make  good 
use  of  this  precedence  now.  In  the  Shansi  province,  one 
of  those  which  suffered  most  in  the  Boxer  uprising,  a 
district  magistrate  asked  the  missions  to  take  over  tem- 
porarily the  whole  educational  project.  The  Oberlin- 
Shansi  group  under  the  American  Board  has  thus  a 
peculiar  privilege,  for  the  Shansi  missionaries  who  fell 
in  the  rebellion  were  many  of  them  Oberlin  men.  In 
some  ways  the  devastation  which  the  Boxer  era  brought 
was  a  benediction  in  disguise.  In  a  number  of  cases  the 
buildings  of  these  schools  and  colleges  were  destroyed. 
They  Jiad  been  established  in  connection  with  denomina- 
tional societies.  When  they  were  to  be  rebuilt  it  seemed 
absurd  to  perpetuate  such  a  number  of  institutions. 
By  combining  they  might  use  their  resources  to  better 
advantage  and  aid  the  growing  movement  for  the 
elimination  of  sectarianism  in  the  Chinese  Christendom 
which  is  to  be.  In  this  way  union  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, like  those  at  Peking,  Foochow,  and  Nanking, 
have  come  into  being.  Union  theological  schools  exist. 
Union  preparatory  schools,  like  that  at  Tungchau, 
make  the  colleges  a  fact  and  not  merely  a  name. 

173.  Modern  medicine. — We  have  spoken  of  the 
beginnings  of  medical  work  in  China.  One  who  has  not 
visited  China  can  form  little  idea  of  the  need  of  such 
work.  The  ancient  practice  was  utter  quackery  and 
often  the  most  cruel  resort  to  magic  and  witness  to 
superstition.  For  a  long  time  foreign  practitioners  were 
few.  Some  boards  hardly  thought  medical  work  within 
their  purpose.     Physicians  were  viewed  by  the  Chinese 


204  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

with  a  suspicion  profounder  than  that  which  met  any 
other  class  of  foreigners.  There  was  no  way  of  educating 
Chinese  for  the  practice  of  the  profession  save  the  old- 
fashioned  tutorial  system.  The  translation  of  standard 
medical  works  was  difficult  because  the  technical  vocabu- 
lary did  not  exist.  Material  for  dissection  was  impos- 
sible to  obtain.  The  hospitals  would  sometimes  hardly 
have  passed  muster  in  the  least  enlightened  and  scrupu- 
lous of  occidental  communities.  Practitioners  were 
often  well  aware  how  fast  their  science  had  moved  since 
the  day  when  they  were  students  and  how  little  chance 
they  had  had  in  these  far  lands  to  keep  the  pace.  In 
these  circumstances  the  union  of  medical  colleges  like 
that  which  has  been  brought  about  at  Peking  and  again 
at  Shanghai  was  a  great  gain.  The  taking  over  of  this 
work  by  a  corporation  of  unlimited  resources,  like  the 
China  Medical  Board  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
constitutes  an  inestimable  benefit.  In  both  of  these 
directions,  medical  and  educational,  something  of  the 
direct  religious  purpose  which  existed  in  the  old  hospitals 
and  colleges  may  have  been  sacrificed.  At  all  events  the 
spiritual  aid  rendered  has  become  a  personal  affair.  This 
takes  place,  however,  in  our  own  countries.  It  is  a  part 
of  the  Christianization  of  life.  No  one  wishes  that  the 
worse  of  two  medical  schools  shall  bear  the  Christian 
name  and  the  better  be  ostentatiously  without  it. 

174.  Christian  literature. — No  people  ever  had  greater 
reverence  for  literature  than  the  Chinese.  None  ever 
was  more  susceptible  to  influence  through  the  printed 
page.  No  land,  therefore,  is  more  open  to  the  Christian 
propaganda  and  indeed  to  the  dissemination  of  all  good 
and  vital  principles  by  the  production  of  a  specific 


CHINA  205 

literature  for  these  ends.  The  Nestor  of  this  effort  on 
behalf  of  Christian  literature  is  Timothy  Richard,  a 
missionary  of  the  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
long  resident  in  Shanghai.  The  Shanghai  Mission  Press 
under  the  responsibility  of  the  Presbyterian  Mission  has 
for  decades  poured  out  books,  periodicals,  and  tracts 
without  number.  The  Literature  Society  guided  by 
Richard  has  gathered  to  its  staff  scores  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished writers,  both  foreigners  and  Chinese,  versed 
in  the  important  dialects.  The  dialects,  though  not  so 
numerous  as  in  India,  are  numerous  enough.  They 
serve  to  separate  the  lower  classes  of  society  quite  de- 
cisively. People  of  any  pretense  to  education  read  even 
if  they  do  not  speak  one  or  the  other  of  the  literary 
languages  in  which  the  tradition  of  culture  has  been 
transmitted.  No  aspect  of  missionary  work  or  con- 
tribution to  the  general  enlightenment  and  morale  of 
the  Chinese  public  will  be  more  important  in  the  future 
than  this  endeavor  to  create  a  Christian  literature. 

175.  Recent  events. — In  closing,  a  word  should  be  said 
concerning  the  extraordinary  political  events  which  have 
taken  place  since  1907.  These  have  greatly  changed  the 
outlook  for  the  Christian  movement.  Just  as  there  was 
in  Japan  after  the  opening  of  the  Meiji  era  an  attempt 
at  the  restoration  of  Shinto  as  the  state  religion,  so  in 
China  after  the  reforms  of  1902-4  there  was  an  effort 
to  revive  in  official  form  the  worship  of  Confucius.  It 
was  declared  that  this  did  not  militate  against  the  tolera- 
tion of  Christianity  and  of  all  other  religions  which  had 
been  exacted  among  the  terms  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Dowager  to  the  throne.  Nevertheless,  for  a  time 
a    monthly    observance    of    the    Confucian    rite    was 


2o6  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

announced  as  necessary  on  the  part  of  all  who  held 
public  office,  including  especially  teachers  in  the  schools. 
Many  refused  to  comply  with  the  injunction.  A  few 
were  punished  for  disobedience.  Before  long  the  whole 
thing  fell  into  desuetude. 

No  event  has  served  more  deeply  to  impress  the  world 
with  the  progress  of  the  Christian  movement  in  China 
than  did  the  official  request  made  by  the  acting  Chinese 
government  for  the  prayers  of  its  Christian  subjects 
on  Sunday,  April  27,  19 13.  A  few  days  prior  to  that 
date  telegrams  had  been  sent  to  the  leaders  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches  asking  that  special  prayers  be  offered  on 
behalf  of  the  Chinese  nation,  and  to  provincial  governors 
and  other  officials  directing  them  to  attend  the  Chris- 
tian services.  The  suggestion  apparently  originated 
with  the  Christians,  of  whom  sixty  had  been  elected 
members  of  the  first  Chinese  parliament. 

The  emperor  Kwang  Hsu  died  sometime  in  No- 
vember, 1908.  On  the  day  after  the  official  announce- 
ment of  his  death  the  Dowager  also  died.  She  had, 
however,  taken  part  in  the  choice  of  a  successor  to  the 
Emperor,  an  infant  two  years  of  age  for  whom  a  regent 
had  been  appointed,  a  favorite  of  the  Dowager.  Hardly 
had  the  new  regent,  Prince  Chung,  assumed  office  when 
the  veteran  statesman  Yuan  Shi-kai,  who  held  in  high 
measure  the  confidence  of  the  European  world,  was  dis- 
missed from  his  post.  The  regent  was  soon  accused 
by  the  Chinese  of  reactionary  tendencies.  After  five 
troubled  years  revolution  broke  out  in  the  south.  The 
most  influential  man  at  the  moment  was  Sun  Yat-sen, 
who,  banished  in  1898,  had  long  been  in  England  and 
America.    The  Manchus  were  forced  to  abdicate  and  a 


CHINA  207 

republic  was  set  up.  The  man  who  after  a  period  of  dis- 
order succeeded  in  taking  the  place  of  president  of  the 
republic  was  no  other  than  Yuan  Shi-kai.  There  were 
continued  disorders  in  the  south  and  difficulties  with  the 
parliament.  Yuan  was  accused  of  ambition  to  restore 
the  monarchy  in  his  own  person.  In  the  midst  of  this 
new  crisis  Yuan  died  and  the  jeopardized  republic  seemed 
once  more  assured.  When  one  thinks  of  the  vast  num- 
bers of  the  people  in  China,  of  the  loose  bond  which  has 
always  existed  among  the  provinces,  of  the  ignorance 
of  remote  regions  concerning  national  and  world  affairs, 
of  the  insufficiency  of  the  means  of  communication,  of 
the  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  finances,  of  the  doctrinaire 
character  of  one  party,  at  least,  of  the  supporters  of  the 
republic,  of  the  tradition  of  absolutism  at  Peking,  and 
of  China's  relative  helplessness  as  yet  in  the  face  of  any 
one  of  the  great  nations,  we  cannot  hide  from  ourselves 
the  difficulties  which  democratic  institutions  in  that 
land  must  meet.  Yet  the  progress  made  since  1900  is 
truly  amazing.  The  Chinese  character  and  intelligence 
is  such  as  to  warrant  high  hope.  More  than  once 
during  the  Great  War,  China  has  seemed  to  be  imperiled 
by  Japan.  Her  entrance  upon  the  war  on  the  side  of 
the  Entente  in  August,  191 7,  seems  the  natural  solution 
of  some  of  her  difficulties.  It  assures  in  further  measure 
the  assimilation  of  China  among  the  world-states  after 
the  war. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  AND  THE 
MOSLEM  WORLD 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  AND  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD 

176.  The  Moslem  world 

177.  Ottoman  power;  lateness  of  missionary  beginnings 

178.  Ancient  Christian  churches;  Syrians  and  Armenians 

179.  The  Byzantine  period;  the  Arabs 

180.  Seljuks  and  Osmans 

181.  Problem  of  the  ancient  Christian  churches 

182.  Roman  and  Anglican  efforts 

183.  The  American  missions;  the  press 

184.  Work  for  Armenians 

185.  The  Protestant  Armenians;  the  massacres 

186.  Cyrus  Hamlin;  Robert  College 

187.  Later  years  of  Robert  College 

188.  The  college  at  Beirut 

189.  Constantinople  College;  the  college  at  Smyrna 

190.  Medical  work 

191.  The  Ottoman  situation 

192.  Internal  questions;  subject  populations 

193.  The  Armenians 

194.  The  revolution  in  Turkey 

195.  The  Turks  and  the  Great  War 

196.  The  present  situation 

197.  The  Moslem  world  outside  the  Ottoman  Empire;  Malaysia; 
India 

198.  Persia;  Transcaucasia 

199.  Egypt  and  Arabia 

200.  Outlook  of  Islam 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  AND  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD 

176.  The  Moslem  world. — The  Moslem  world  as  a 
religious  magnitude  includes  the  whole  of  Northern 
Africa,  the  area  of  former  Moslem  states  or  provinces 
now  mainly  under  European  rule.  It  is  being  rapidly 
extended  by  successful  missionary  propaganda  among 
negroes  in  Middle  Africa,  now  also  under  the  rule  of 
various  states  of  Christendom.  It  reaches  Persia  and 
makes  itself  felt  in  India,  Burma,  Siam,  China,  and  the 
Dutch  and  English  East  Indies.  It  includes  several 
populous  provinces  of  Russia.  Moslem  elements  in  the 
Balkan  States  are  not  negligible.  As  a  political  magni- 
tude, on  the  other  hand,  it  exists  only  in  the  Otto- 
man Empire,  ruled  from  Constantinople,  but  covering 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  Arabia  until  the  present  war.  The  territory  under 
actual  sovereignty  of  the  sultan  has  steadily  diminished 
during  the  nineteenth  century.  The  influence  which  the 
Commander  of  the  Faithful  once  exerted  over  Moslems 
whom  he  did  not  rule  has  also  been  seriously  impaired. 
Before  the  war  it  was  estimated  that  hardly  20  per  cent 
of  the  population  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  of  Turkish 
blood  and  not  more  than  50  per  cent  of  Moslem  faith. 
Out  of  the  supposed  two  hundred  millions  of  Moslems  in 
the  world  one  hundred  and  seventy  millions  were  ruled 
by  Christian  states.  Speaking  only  of  events  of  very 
recent  years,  the  French  occupation  of  Morocco,  the 
Italian  conquest  of  Tripoli,  the  Anglo-Russian  agreement 

211 


212  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

with  reference  to  Persia,  the  defeat  of  Turkey  by  the 
Balkan  States,  the  dethronement  of  the  khedive,  the 
successful  rebellion  of  Arabia,  carrying  with  it  the  sacred 
city  of  Mecca,  constitute  a  series  of  catastrophes  unparal- 
leled in  the  history  of  Islam.  The  end  of  Moslem  rule  in 
the  world  may  be  nearly  as  swift  and  spectacular  as  was 
its  beginning.  The  most  favorable  possible  issue  of 
the  Great  War  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Turks  would 
still  have  left  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  complete  subjection 
to  Germany. 

177.  Ottoman  power;  lateness  of  missionary  beginnings. 
— For  the  purposes  of  this  narrative,  therefore,  the  Otto- 
man Empire  is  only  in  some  sense  a  center  and  symbol  of 
the  Moslem  world.  The  Moslem  problem  must  be 
met  mainly  under  conditions  which  prevail,  for  example, 
in  India  and  Burma  and  Malaysia,  where  half  of  the 
Moslems  of  the  world  reside  under  the  British  crown. 
A  hundred  years  ago  when  Protestant  missions  began  this 
was  very  far  from  being  the  case.  The  Ottoman  rule 
had  still  something  of  the  aspect  which  it  wore  when  the 
armies  of  the  sultan  gathered  under  the  walls  of  Vienna. 
Constantinople  was  the  center  of  a  might  which  had  once 
been  the  terror  of  Christendom.  If  Christians  had  begun 
to  realize  that  the  Crusades  of  the  Middle  Ages  had 
assailed  that  power  in  a  mistaken  and  fruitless  way, 
none  the  less  did  they  hope  to  approach  that  same 
spiritual  and  temporal  might  in  a  new  and  better  way. 
It  may  be  of  interest  to  add  that  the  Ottoman  Empire  is 
the  one  great  region  included  in  this  study  which  Roman 
Catholic  missions  entered,  not  three  hundred  years  before 
the  Protestants,  as  in  the  case  of  India,  China,  or  Japan, 
but  at  the  same  time  with  the  Protestants.     There  was 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMFIRE  213 

little  opening  for  trade  in  the  Levant  in  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance  like  that  which  sent  the  Portuguese  to 
the  Far  East  or  the  Spanish  to  America.  When  the 
diplomacy  of  Europe  opened  the  Near  East  after  the 
Napoleonic  wars  the  opportunity  was  embraced  by 
both  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  alike. 

178.  Ancient  Christian  churches;  Syrians  and  Arme- 
nians.— It  happens  that  the  portion  of  the  earth  covered 
now  or  until  very  recently  by  the  Ottoman  Empire 
was,  the  larger  part  of  it  until  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  a  smaller  part  until  the  fall  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  the  very  area  which  was  identified  with  the 
intensest  Christian  life.  Syria  was  the  region  of  the  first 
Christian  propaganda.  In  Antioch  followers  of  Jesus 
were  first  called  Christians.  In  Damascus,  Paul  was 
converted.  Asia  Minor  was  the  scene  of  a  considerable 
part  of  his  missionary  activity.  Greece,  which  was 
Turkish  until  1829,  and  Macedonia,  which  is  still 
disputed,  were  the  scenes  of  almost  all  the  rest.  Asia 
Minor  was  then  one  of  the  richest  and  most  densely 
populated  regions  in  the  world.  It  had  been  for  a 
thousand  years  the  meeting-place  of  civilizations  and 
religions.  It  came  to  be  the  most  Christian  area  on 
earth.  The  unknown  seer  in  the  Apocalypse  counted 
seven  influential  cities  in  which  there  were  churches. 
Paul's  letters  and  the  Book  of  the  Acts  show  that  there 
were  many  more.  The  Ignatian  letters  reveal  a  vivid 
and  vigorous  life.  At  the  Council  of  Nicaea  there 
were  present  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops,  only 
seven  of  whom  were  from  west  of  the  Hellespont.  Even 
a  council  at  Aries  in  314  was  largely  attended  from  Asia 
Minor  and  Latin  Africa.     The  success  of  the  Christian 


214  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

i 

movement  in  the  Lower  Valley  of  the  Nile  is  recalled  by 
the  very  name  of  Alexandria.  The  names  of  Cyprian 
and  Augustine  cause  us  to  remember  the  part  which 
Roman  Africa  played.  To  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  the 
region  north  of  the  desert  was  one  of  the  gardens  of  the 
world  and  was  very  largely  Christianized.  Edessa,  now 
Urfa,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  had  been  a  center  of  Chris- 
tianity at  all  events  since  175  a.d.  It  later  received  the 
Nestorians  when  they  were  driven  from  the  seats  of 
orthodoxy.  This  church  of  Eastern  Syria  exerted 
great  influence  upon  the  development  of  the  faith  in 
Persia.  It  was  responsible  for  missionary  endeavor  in 
both  India  and  China.  Armenia,  the  region  extending 
from  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  over  the  high 
table-land  to  Ararat,  received  Christianity  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  302  a.d.  Arme- 
nians, now  scattered  over  the  Turkish  Empire  and 
represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  have  been  Christian 
since  that  early  day. 

179.  The  Byzantine  period;  the  Arabs. — Remnants 
of  the  early  Christian  church  which  we  have  named  and 
the  subdivisions  which  with  lapse  of  time  these  have 
undergone  are  to  be  found  in  Ottoman  territory  today. 
In  a  general  way  they  fall  under  the  popular  designation 
of  the  Greek  church,  in  contrast  to  the  Roman  church 
as  this  developed  after  the  great  schism.  They  were 
always  more  or  less  independent  of  the  central  body  of 
the  Holy  Orthodox  church  under  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  Many  of  them  have  been  viewed  by 
the  staunch  orthodox  element  as  heretical.  They  on 
their  part  have  been  jealous  of  their  autonomy.  These 
little  outlying  Christian  peoples  with  their  churches  met 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  215 

the  full  fury  of  the  onrush  of  Islam.  Jerusalem  fell  in 
614,  Alexandria  in  618,  Damascus  in  634.  Heraclius, 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  made  desperate  effort  to  reclaim 
his  lost  territories.  For  a  brief  time  he  did  again  possess 
Jerusalem.  The  large  part  of  the  remoter  regions  have 
remained  to  this  day  under  Mohammedan  rule.  Bagdad 
became  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  caliphates,  the 
center  of  Arab  civilization.  The  iconoclastic  struggles 
disrupted  the  Orthodox  church  when  it  had  all  possible 
need  of  unity.  Yet  on  the  whole,  although  Africa  and 
Syria  and  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  which 
were  once  Christian  had  been  lost,  the  Arab  conquests 
paused.  Relations  with  the  caliphates  were  tolerable. 
The  vigor  of  the  Abassides  declined. 

180.  Seljuks  and  Osmans. — A  worse  calamity  was  to 
follow.  The  grandson  of  Seljuk  the  Mongol  had  become 
a  follower  of  the  Prophet.  This  did  not  prevent  him 
from  overrunning  the  Arab  Empire  and  Persia.  His 
successor  conquered  Armenia,  which,  without  help  from 
Constantinople,  had  made  a  good  stand  thus  far.  In 
1 08 1  the  sultan  fixed  the  seat  of  his  empire  at  Nicaea, 
the  shrine  of  orthodoxy.  The  Mongols  were  practically 
savages  from  Central  Asia.  The  Anatolian  civilization 
went  down  before  them  never  to  recover.  The  cry  of 
the  emperor  Comnenus  to  Christian  Europe  for  help 
furnished  an  additional  motive  for  that  great  inter- 
national movement  already  gathering  headway  in  the 
West,  the  Crusades.  It  was  little  that  the  Crusaders 
ever  did  for  the  relief  of  Eastern  Christendom.  The 
bitterness  with  which  the  two  halves  of  Christendom 
hated  one  another  had  something  to  do  with  that.  The 
provincialism  of  Europe,  its  ignorance  of  all  matters 


216  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

pertaining  to  the  East,  had  more.  Europe  did  not  realize 
what  was  at  stake  in  the  struggle  of  emperor  and  patri- 
arch at  Constantinople  or  how  soon,  if  these  went  down, 
the  life  and  death  struggle  with  the  Mongol  savage, 
now  Mohammedan,  would  become  a  European  matter. 
The  glutted  Seljuks  deteriorated  in  the  fair  world  which 
they  were  reducing  to  a  desert.  There  was  need  of  a 
new  Mongol  wave,  that  of  the  Osman  Turks,  to  wipe  out 
completely  the  civilization  that  had  once  been  Greece 
and  in  some  sense  also  Rome,  the  glory  that  had  been 
Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Constantinople,  and  to  put 
the  oriental  Christians  under  the  feet  of  the  Tatar 
converts  of  the  Great  Arabian.  The  end  came  in  1453. 
So  strong  was  Constantinople,  so  well  did  its  people 
apprehend  what  was  at  issue,  that  the  overthrow  was 
not  accomplished  until  the  Turks  had  seized  large  areas 
on  the  European  side,  had  penetrated  far  into  Greece 
and  the  Balkans  and  approached  Constantinople  from 
Roman  Adrianople  and  from  St.  Paul's  own  Thessa- 
lonica.  It  seems  the  very  irony  of  history  to  say  that 
the  fall  of  Constantinople  first  brought  to  Europeans 
the  knowledge  of  the  Near  East  which  might  have  saved 
the  city  had  they  possessed  it  one  or  two  generations 
earlier.  As  it  was,  the  conquests  of  Islam  were  destined 
to  advance  much  farther  into  Europe.  They  were 
checked  first  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
They  have  been  reversed  only  in  the  nineteenth  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth. 

181.  Problem  of  the  ancient  Christian  churches. — It 
will  be  evident  that  the  problem  of  missions  in  the  Otto- 
man Empire  was  very  different  from  that  which  has 
been  met  in  any  country  of  which  we  have  thus  far 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  217 

spoken.  In  the  empire  as  a  whole  before  the  war  there 
were  supposed  to  be  about  forty  million  people.  Of 
these,  eight  million  were  Turks  and  the  rest  were  of 
twenty  different  races.  Of  the  subject  races  of  ancient 
Christian  inheritance  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of 
the  country  all  must  have  connection  with  one  or  another 
of  the  churches.  The  Porte  officially  dealt  with  the 
subject  populations  as  adherents  of  this  or  that  religion. 
It  recognized  them  only  under  some  ecclesiastical 
authority.  To  be  without  religious  connection  in 
Turkey  was  to  be  without  civil  rights.  The  course  of 
the  history  of  the  American  missions  led  them  early  to 
realize  that  the  time  had  not  yet  come  for  direct  approach 
to  the  problem  which  the  Turkish  Moslems  present. 
In  most  lands  the  evangelistic  stage,  that  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  gospel  and  the  formation  of  little  religious 
communities,  has  preceded  educational  work  and  medi- 
cine and  the  work  of  the  press.  In  Asia  Minor  the 
Americans  were  convinced  that  so  far  as  the  Moslems 
were  concerned  the  order  should  be  reversed.  The 
approach  to  a  people  so  intensely  hostile  to  the  Christian 
faith  must  be  through  works  of  mercy  and  enlighten- 
ment, through  contribution  to  the  change  in  the  civili- 
zation of  the  empire  which  the  missionaries  were 
convinced  was  bound  to  come.  For  this  new  order  of 
missionary  procedure  points  of  departure  were  every- 
where given  in  the  subject  races.  So  far  were  the 
Armenians  and  Greeks  the  ablest  element  of  the  popu- 
lation that  their  bitter  persecutions  were  due  largely 
to  Turkish  recognition  of  that  fact.  Besides  there  was 
the  recognition  of  the  common  element  between  them 
and  the  missionaries  which  was  given  in  the  possession 


218  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  the  Christian  faith.  These  peoples  could  not  be 
approached  in  the  ordinary  way  of  missionary  work. 

0 

To  have  ignored  their  Christian  standing  would  have 
been  outrageous.  Yet  there  was  much  that  the 
Christians  from  the  West  could  do  for  them.  This 
possible  service  was  exactly  in  the  line  of  that  which 
the  missionaries  had  judged  as  to  the  mode  of  approach 
to  the  Turks  and  the  empire  as  a  whole.  It  was  service 
through  educational  institutions  and  the  press,  through 
hospitals  and  general  philanthropy.  The  plan  was  to 
leave  ecclesiastical  and  theological  questions  on  one  side. 
It  was  to  work  for  the  inner  transformation  of  the 
ancient  Christian  churches  and  by  no  means  to  set  up 
bodies  of  mission  adherents  beside  them  or  to  add  to  the 
number  of  warring  Christian  sects. 

182.  Roman  and  Anglican  efforts. — No  enlightened 
Christian  from  the  West  could  view  these  oriental 
Christian  bodies  without  profound  sympathy  because  of 
their  glorious  history  and  of  the  unspeakable  things 
which  they  had  suffered.  As  little  could  he  be  unaware 
that,  in  consequence  of  their  misfortunes,  of  their 
isolation,  and  of  their  mutual  antagonisms,  they  had 
fallen  behind  that  development  which  the  course  of 
centuries  had  brought  to  Western  Christendom.  To 
suppose  that  they  would  not  be  Christian  until  they  had 
adopted  the  forms  of  faith  and  practice  of  some  of  our 
Western  denominations  would  be  shameful  bigotry. 
Yet  to  aid  them  in  the  development  of  their  own  religious 
life  and  in  the  reform  of  their  ecclesiastical  institutions, 
to  help  them  to  escape  a  view  of  Christianity  which 
regarded  it  as  nothing  but  orthodoxy  and  ceremonialism, 
was  a  problem  of  greatest  insight  and  tact.     Latins  have 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  219 

been  present  in  the  empire,  especially  in  Palestine, 
in  appreciable  numbers  since  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
Yet  the  suspicion  and  hatred  between  the  Latin  and 
oriental  churches  had  been  such  that  one  could  hardly 
speak  of  a  religious  influence  of  these  devout  groups  of 
scholars  or  of  monks  and  nuns  upon  the  Christians  of  the 
land.  What  the  orientals  heard  of  various  attempts  at 
union,  as,  for  example,  that  between  Latins  and  the 
orthodox  of  Little  Russia,  did  not  improve  the  matter. 
The  fact  that  the  Maronites  on  the  Lebanon  had  in  a 
body  transferred  their  allegiance  to  the  pope  was  but  a 
confirmation  of  that  which  the  Eastern  Christians 
feared.  To  this  day  one  can  hardly  speak  of  Roman 
missionary  activity  in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  although 
there  have  been  illustrious  scholars  from  Latin  countries 
long  resident  in  the  Levant,  and  although  there  have 
been  Roman  ecclesiastics  in  Constantinople  ever  since 
the  days  when  under  the  second  empire  France  exerted 
great  influence  upon  the  Porte.  The  monks  and  nuns 
have  done  hospital  and  orphanage  work  and  some 
school  work.  Exactly  the  thing  which  was  needed, 
however,  aid  to  the  oriental  churches  in  the  realization 
of  themselves,  seemed  to  lie  outside  of  the  Roman 
power.  The  scores  of  thousands  of  Russian  peasant 
pilgrims  to  the  fields  over  whose  acres  walked  the  blessed 
feet  have  left  the  country  exactly  as  they  found  it. 
The  Anglican  church  in  the  seventeenth  century  in  the 
time  of  the  Patriarch  Cyril  Lucar  drew  close  to  the 
Holy  Orthodox  church  and  has  since  had  periods  of 
reviving  the  hope  of  union  with  that  church.  It  has 
been  extremely  sensitive  as  to  anything  which  implied 
less  than  unqualified  reverence  for  the  tradition  of  the 


220  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Eastern  churches.  It  has  severely  criticized  the  course 
of  Protestant  bodies  when  these  seemed  to  be  working  to 
the  detriment  of  those  claims.  Yet  in  all  the  long  years, 
now  nearly  ninety,  in  which  England  has  wielded 
great  influence  at  Constantinople,  the  Anglican  church 
has  taken  little  responsibility  for  any  work  in  the  Otto- 
man Empire  and  less  for  work  on  behalf  of  the  Christian 
churches  in  that  empire.  The  establishment  of  the 
Jerusalem  bishopric  in  connection  with  the  Anglican 
church  in  1841,  although,  or  perhaps  because,  it  was 
achieved  by  joint  action  with  the  Lutheran  church  of 
the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  was  an  offense  to  many, 
especially  in  the  High  Church  party.  After  all  it 
endeavored  mainly  to  develop  work  among  the  Moslems. 
The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  had  work  in 
Palestine  since  185 1  centering  at  Jerusalem,  Nazareth, 
and  Nablus,  but  this  also  has  been  chiefly  for  Moslems. 

183.  The  American  missions;  the  press. — When  in 
1820  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  sent  out  Pliny  Fiske  and  Levi  Parsons  it  was 
the  intention  that  they  should  be  located  at  Jerusalem 
and  labor  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  They  were, 
however,  commissioned  to  report  upon  the  general 
conditions  in  the  empire  and  the  prospect  of  success  in 
appeal  to  adherents  of  other  faiths.  Next  after  the 
Jews  it  was  the  Moslems  who  were  had  in  mind.  Par- 
sons went  almost  at  once  to  Jerusalem,  but  the  outbreak 
of  the  Greek  revolution  compelled  him  to  return  to 
Smyrna,  where  he  died  in  1822.  Jonas  King  took  his 
place.  In  Jerusalem  for  two  years  he  and  Fiske  devoted 
themselves  to  study  of  the  languages,  but  a  Jerusalem 
station  was  never  reopened  under  this  Board.     Beirut, 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  221 

however,  became  the  center  of  a  work  which  has  been 
highly  influential.  Goodell  and  Bird  were  the  first 
permanent  missionaries.  Goodell  mastered  Arabic, 
Turkish,  and  Armenian  as  well  as  modern  Greek.  He 
set  about  the  work  of  translating  the  Bible  and  estab- 
lished a  press.  In  1827  thirteen  free  schools  were  opened 
in  the  city  and  vicinity.  These  schools  had  six  hundred 
pupils,  one  hundred  of  them  girls,  a  thing  before  unknown. 
There  was  bitter  opposition  especially  from  the  Maro- 
nites  of  the  Lebanon  and  from  the  Latin  Catholics. 
After  the  battle  of  Navarino  the  British  consulate  under 
whose  protection  the  Americans  had  labored  was  tem- 
porarily closed  and  the  little  mission  had  to  flee  to 
Malta.  The  sojourn  in  Malta  marked  the  decision 
henceforth  to  make  greatest  possible  use  of  the  press 
for  mission  work  throughout  the  Turkish  Empire. 
By  1833  conditions  were  such  that  it  was  possible  to 
return  to  Beirut.  The  Arabic  press  was  taken  to 
Beirut  while  the  Greek,  Turkish,  and  Armenian  equip- 
ment was  transferred  to  Smyrna.  Names  later  famous 
began  to  appear  in  the  mission  in  these  years,  especially 
those  of  Riggs,  van  Lennep,  and  Dwight.  Goodell  was 
sent  to  open  a  station  at  Constantinople;  associated 
with  him  was  William  Schaufller.  The  mission  press 
at  Constantinople  then  began  its  career.  Perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  man  in  the  whole  circle  was  Elias 
Riggs.  He  went  to  Athens  in  1832,  then  in  1844  to 
Smyrna,  and  in  1853  to  Constantinople.  He  is  said  to 
have  had  a  working  knowledge  of  twenty  languages 
and  to  have  been  the  master  of  twelve.  He  did  a  large 
part  of  the  work  of  the  Armenian  translation  of  the 
Bible,  which  appeared  in  1852.    He  was  the  sole  author 


222  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  the  translation  into  Bulgarian,  which  was  issued  in 
187 1.  He  was  with  Schauffler  and  Herrick  the  reviser 
of  the  translation  into  Turkish,  which  was  printed  in 
both  Arabic  and  Armenian  characters  in  1878.  He  wrote 
numbers  of  schoolbooks  and  devotional  books  in  nine 
different  languages.  A  considerable  part  of  the  income 
of  the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  for 
forty  years  absorbed  by  its  subsidies  to  the  output  of  the 
Constantinople  press.  Second  only  to  the  Turkish 
translation  above  named  came  the  Smith-Van  Dyke 
translation  into  Arabic.  The  issue  of  the  Constantinople 
Protestant  press  until  19 13,  including  works  of  educa- 
tional and  religious  literature  of  every  sort,  reached 
the  total  of  fifty  million  pages. 

184.  Work  for  Armenians. — At  Constantinople  was 
made  also  the  first  successful  approach  to  the  Armenians, 
of  whom  there  were  a  hundred  thousand  in  the  city.  A 
learned  and  devout  Armenian,  Pesthinaljian,  brought  to 
the  attention  of  Goodell  the  movement  gathering  strength 
within  the  Armenian  church  for  reform  of  the  life  of  the 
clergy  and  for  the  better  education  of  candidates.  The 
patriarch  expressed  himself  as  favorable  to  the  mis- 
sionaries' plans  of  aid.  Then  was  made  clear  the  policy 
of  the  Board  to  work  only  in  and  through  the  oriental 
churches  and  in  no  way  to  act  in  rivalry  with  them. 
During  this  period  also  there  was  sent  out  an  expedition 
into  Eastern  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  which  located  many 
of  the  stations  later  connected  with  the  Board's  best 
work,  Erzroom,  Tiflis,  and  Tabriz.  In  1839  the  toler- 
ant patriarch  of  the  Armenians  was  replaced  by  a  man 
of  different  mold.  Many  of  the  priests  had  begun  to 
resent  the  insistence  of  their  own  authorities  upon  better 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  223 

morals  and  education.  They  correctly  laid  the  respon- 
sibility at  the  door  of  the  missionaries.  The  reactionary 
party  gained  the  upper  hand.  Representations  were 
made  to  the  sultan  which  might  have  resulted  in  the 
closing  of  the  American  mission  at  Constantinople  had 
not  the  hands  of  the  Ruler  of  the  Faithful  been  more  than 
full  at  the  moment  on  account  of  the  revolt  in  Egypt. 
The  Armenian  patriarch  Matteos  (1844-48)  excommuni- 
cated from  the  church  all  those  who  appeared  to  be 
moved  by  the  Protestant  spirit.  For  years  it  had  been 
difficult  for  the  missionaries  to  convince  their  sym- 
pathizers that  they  should  not  withdraw  from  the 
ancestral  churches  in  which  they  were  now  made  to 
suffer  every  indignity.  These  desired  to  set  up  com- 
munities after  the  American  Congregationalist  model, 
to  elect  their  own  ministers  and  escape  the  authority  of 
the  hierarchy.  The  patriarch's  expulsion  of  this 
element  from  the  church  now  left  them  no  other  course. 
Nor  indeed  was  there  any  course  left  for  the  missionaries 
save  to  aid  them.  The  Turkish  government  in  1850 
recognized  the  Protestant  body.  Without  such  recog- 
nition the  participants  in  the  movement  would  have  lost 
their  civil  rights.  To  the  wisest  of  the  missionaries 
it  was  a  great  disappointment.  It  was  the  failure  of  an 
ideal. 

185.  The  Protestant  Armenians;  the  massacres. — 
The  evangelical  mission  body,  the  Protestant  church 
within  the  Ottoman  state,  has  made  fair  progress.  After 
the  first  period  of  antagonism  there  was,  however,  a 
general  return  to  the  earlier  and  better  attitude  toward 
the  ancient  churches.  Every  effort  has  been  made  in 
the   missions   to   induce   those   who   came   under   the 


224  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

influence  of  the  missionaries,  whether  in  the  schools, 
through  the  press,  or  in  the  medical  work,  to  remain 
in  the  communion  to  which  their  families  belonged. 
The  fact  that  in  the  great  number  of  educational  insti- 
tutions, higher  and  secondary  and  for  both  sexes 
sustained  by  missions  throughout  the  land,  three-fourths 
of  the  pupils  came  from  non-Protestant  homes  is  surely 
evidence  of  good  faith.  The  attitude  of  the  Armenian 
and  Orthodox  and  Greek  hierarchies,  to  mention  only 
the  greater  ones,  while  subject  to  variation,  has  grown 
more  kindly  with  the  lapse  of  years.  Of  the  attitude  of 
the  government  something  similar  might  be  said.  The 
so-called  Hatti  Humajian  treaty,  exacted  from  the 
Porte  by  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  in  1856  under  the 
pressure  of  the  Crimean  War,  marked  the  farthest  limit 
of  reforming  concessions  in  the  matter  of  religious  tolera- 
tion. At  that  time  both  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  increased  their  work  in  Turkey,  addressed 
mainly  to  the  Mohammedans,  only  to  withdraw  from 
a  part  of  that  work  again  in  the  period  of  the  sultan's 
disfavor,  which  began  in  1864.  For  twenty  years 
after  that  date  the  Protestant  movement  was  subjected 
to  every  inconvenience  and  sometimes  to  actual  violence. 
There  was  a  change  for  the  better  after  1886.  Yet  the 
situation  left  much  to  be  desired.  Persecution  brought 
the  Armenians  and  Protestants  closer  together.  At 
the  end  of  fifty  years,  or  in  1895,  the  Protestant  body 
numbered  only  about  twelve  thousand  communicants. 
In  the  following  year  they  suffered  decimation  in  an 
Armenian  massacre  which  then  seemed  an  appalling 
calamity.     But  the  events  of  these  last  years,  the  effort 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMTIRE  225 

to  exterminate  the  whole  Armenian  race,  makes  all 
previous  sufferings  of  this  brave  people  small  by  com- 
parison. 

186.  Cyrus  Hamlin;  Robert  College. — The  career  of 
Cyrus  Hamlin  and  the  history  of  Robert  College  is  so 
typical  for  the  educational  aspect  of  the  work  of  the 
Americans  in  Turkey  that  the  story  may  be  told  in  some 
detail.  Hamlin  came  to  Constantinople  in  1838  under 
the  American  Board,  charged  with  the  establishment  of  a 
theological  seminary  for  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
in  the  oriental  churches.  Beginnings  were  small. 
The  students  were  almost  without  exception  Armenians. 
A  fourth  part  of  them  came  from  homes  of  Gregorian 
and  Orthodox  clergy.  This  is  the  more  noteworthy 
because  it  was  exactly  in  the  circle  of  the  clergy  that 
fear  of  the  education  which  the  missionaries  were  giving 
began  later  to  make  itself  felt.  Hamlin  was  not  willing 
merely  to  dispense  aid  to  needy  students.  He  estab- 
lished industrial  classes  and  himself  taught  at  the 
anvil  and  at  the  bench  of  both  the  carpenter  and  the 
cobbler.  Such  ideas  were  new  to  the  oriental  clergy. 
In  1846  came  the  breach  with  the  Armenian  patriarch. 
Those  who  would  not  break  with  the  mission  and  its 
school  lost  all  hope  of  preferment  in  the  church.  They 
were  ostracized  in  the  community.  Just  when  the 
theological  seminary  had  reached  its  lowest  ebb  the 
Crimean  War  broke  out.  Care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
and  even  work  for  the  Turkish  commissariat  furnished 
scope  for  Hamlin's  boundless  energy.  When  the  war 
was  over  the  Board  decided  to  transfer  the  seminary  to 
Marsovan  in  the  interior  and  to  conduct  all  instruction 
in  the  vernaculars.     Hamlin's  idea  was  just  the  opposite. 


226  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

He  desired  to  develop  a  college  on  the  lines  of  the  best 
American  institutions  and  for  students  fitting  for  every 
career.  For  this  purpose  he  needed  to  remain  in  Con- 
stantinople, to  have  freedom  accorded  him,  and  greater 
funds  placed  at  his  disposal.  The  issue  of  education  was 
then  rife  in  many  missions.  The  Board  was  passing 
through  a  sort  of  revulsion  in  its  policy.  Challenged  to  go 
forward  in  new  ways  it  for  the  moment  decided  to  return 
as  far  as  possible  to  purely  evangelistic  endeavor. 
Hamlin  rebelled.  He  returned  to  America  and  sought  to 
change  the  attitude  of  the  Board.  Failing  in  this  he 
resigned.  He  sought  private  aid  for  his  scheme  of  a 
preparatory  school  and  college  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bosporus  which  should  some  day  grow  into  a  university. 
So  well  did  he  plead  the  cause  of  the  new  era  in  missions 
that  Christopher  Robert,  a  merchant  of  New  York, 
consented  for  the  time  at  least  to  guarantee  the  venture. 
A  charter  was  sought  under  the  laws  of  the  state  of 
New  York.  A  board  of  trustees  was  elected.  It 
was  composed  of  American  business  men,  educators, 
and  clergymen.  Later  a  co-operating  committee  was 
formed  of  residents  of  Constantinople  representing  the 
various  racial  and  ecclesiastical  constituencies.  The 
college  was  named  for  Mr.  Robert  and  Hamlin  was 
chosen  president.  The  Turkish  government  interposed 
every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  purchase  of  ground  or  permit 
to  build.  Hamlin  lived  through  years  in  which  his 
project  brought  him  little  but  disappointment.  It 
was  1863  before  the  institution  was  acknowledged  by  the 
Porte  and  placed  under  the  diplomatic  protection  of  the 
United  States.  The  site  at  Bebek  was  chosen,  an  hour 
from   Constantinople  on  the   shores  of  the  Bosporus 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  227 

close  to  the  ruins  of  the  Rumeli  fortress  with  the  hills 
of  Asia  before  it. 

187.  Later  years  of  Robert  College. — Hamlin  remained 
but  ten  years  at  the  head  of  the  institution  to  which  he 
had  given  his  life.  He  saw  it  grow  into  a  preparatory- 
school  with  a  four  years'  course  and  a  college  with  again 
a  four  years'  course  in  preparation  for  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  Degrees  are  conferred  under  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  the  state  of  New  York.  He  saw 
the  college  pass  under  the  guidance  of  his  friend  and  son- 
in-law,  George  Washburn,  who  presided  over  its  desti- 
nies until  1902.  Hamlin  lived  until  1900  in  unwearying 
activity.  Washburn,  who  died  in  191 5,  saw,  through 
the  gifts  of  Mr.  Kennedy  and  others,  his  college  in 
possession  of  a  plant  and  endowment  which  place  it 
among  the  best-equipped  institutions  of  the  sort  in  any 
land.  Its  engineering  school  is  the  first  of  the  profes- 
sional and  technical  departments  by  which  it  is  to  grow 
into  a  university.  It  is  a  Christian  college  but  absolutely 
non-sectarian.  In  191 5-16,  the  second  year  of  the  Great 
War,  when  the  participation  of  Turkey  was  beginning  to 
tell  heavily  upon  its  constituency,  Robert  College  had 
419  students,  240  of  these  being  in  the  preparatory 
department.  These  students  represented  17  different 
races,  182  being  Greeks,  133  Armenians,  and  62  Turks. 
They  were  of  7  different  faiths,  230  of  them  belonging  to 
the  Orthodox  church  and  in  to  the  Gregorian.  There 
were  79  Moslems  and  only  34  Protestants.  Dr.  Charles 
F.  Gates,  formerly  of  Euphrates  College  at  Harpoot,  has 
been  president  since  1903.  Of  all  the  European  subjects 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire  the  Bulgarians  were  before  the 
war  best  represented  among  the  students.     That  the 


228  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

college  has  had  great  part  in  the  education  of  the  peoples 
of  the  empire  in  the  desire  for  freedom  and  for  representa- 
tive government  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  personality 
of  Dr.  Washburn,  who  was  fifty  years  in  Constantinople 
and  ten  years  more  in  closest  touch  with  the  affairs 
of  the  Levant,  was  of  greater  significance  in  some 
ways  than  even  the  institution  over  which  he  presided. 
He  was  the  trusted  friend  of  the  diplomats  of  almost 
every  nation  and  had  the  confidence  of  the  Porte. 
He  reaped  the  advantage  of  his  country's  remoteness 
from  all  the  political  questions  which  agitated  the  Near 
East.  His  genuine  sympathy  with  the  moral  and 
religious  interests  of  the  various  ecclesiastical  parties 
and  rival  faiths  was  as  surely  reckoned  upon  as  was  his 
own  uncompromising  Christian  character.  He  was  an 
educator  in  a  sense  in  which  Hamlin  was  not.  No  man 
of  his  generation  knew  the  problems  of  the  Near  East 
better  than  Washburn  or  contributed  more  to  a  solution 
which  sometimes  now  seems  very  far  off  but  which 
may  be  very  near. 

188.  The  college  at  Beirut. — One  can  hardly  name 
Robert  College  and  Dr.  Washburn  without  thinking  of 
the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut  and  Dr.  Daniel 
Bliss,  its  founder  and  president.  This  institution  has 
done  for  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Egypt  much  the  same 
work  which  Robert  College  has  done  for  the  Balkans, 
Greece,  and  Asia  Minor.  Bliss  went  to  Beirut  at  the 
time  when  the  Syrian  and  Palestinian  mission  was  under 
the  American  Board.  This  was  one  of  the  missions 
which  in  1869  were  set  off  to  the  Presbyterians.  The 
college  had  been  founded,  however,  in  1863  and,  guided 
by  the  experience  of  Hamlin  and  the  school  at  Bebek, 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  229 

it  had  been  founded  as  a  chartered  and  endowed  insti- 
tution only  indirectly  related  to  the  mission.  This 
institution  also  is  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
state  of  New  York  and  has  a  co-operating  committee 
in  Beirut.  Several  members  of  this  committee  and  many 
members  of  the  faculty  are  members  of  the  mission. 
This  center  of  Western  learning  in  the  East  has  also  an 
incomparable  situation,  high  on  the  Ras  Beirut  with  the 
sea  before  it  and  the  Lebanon  behind.  It  was  founded 
only  shortly  after  the  rebellion  of  the  Druses  had  made 
the  work  of  the  mission  difficult.  The  partial  French 
protectorate,  which  was  established  after  the  insurrec- 
tion, did  not  make  that  work  easier.  The  college  had 
in  1907,  21  professors  and  38  instructors.  It  had  878 
students  of  whom  346  were  Greek  Orthodox,  147 
were  Protestants,  127  were  Moslems,  62  were  Jews, 
and  20  were  Druses.  There  were  even  a  few  Roman 
Catholics.  Scarcely  a  race  or  tribe  in  all  the  mixed 
population  of  Syria  was  unrepresented.  The  insti- 
tution has  a  preparatory  school  and  a  college  after  the 
American  pattern.  It  has  also  four  professional  or 
technical  courses.  There  is  a  medical  school,  a  school  of 
pharmacy,  a  school  of  business,  and  an  archaeological 
institute.  The  medical  school  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant. It  has  had  the  patronage  of  the  Ottoman  govern- 
ment. As  the  college  and  preparatory  schools  have 
departments  for  women,  so  also  there  is  a  school  for 
nurses  attached  to  the  department  of  medicine,  with  a 
clinic  for  women  and  a  children's  hospital.  The 
archaeological  institute  has  taken  over  the  conduct  of 
explorations  in  a  country  which  presents  unrivaled 
opportunity.     Participation  in  religious  instruction  and 


230  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

in  the  public  services  for  worship,  for  a  long  time  com- 
pulsory, has  recently  been  made  voluntary.  The  college 
is  viewed  by  all  the  Protestant  missions  in  the  Near 
East  and  Egypt  as  their  university.  It  stands  far 
above  any  of  the  Turkish  institutions.  The  Jesuit 
university  of  St.  Joseph  in  Beirut  does  it  the  honor  of 
keen  rivalry.  Dr.  Bliss  died  in  191 6  in  Beirut  in  the 
midst  of  the  Great  War.  His  son,  Howard  S.  Bliss, 
had  succeeded  him  in  1904  as  the  head  of  the  institu- 
tion. 

189.  Constantinople  College;  the  college  at  Smyrna. — 
This  narrative  would  not  be  complete  did  we  not  allude 
to  Constantinople  College  for  women,  long  in  Scutari 
on  the  Asiatic  side,  but  of  late  occupying  splendid  build- 
ings not  far  from  Robert  College.  After  the  mission 
boarding  school  for  girls  at  Constantinople  had  been 
closed  in  1862  the  so-called  Home  School  was  established 
in  187 1  by  the  Woman's  Board  working  in  conjunction 
with  the  American  Board.  In  1883  Miss  Mary  Patrick 
became  principal.  Miss  Patrick  was  one  of  the  first 
women  to  take  a  degree  in  a  Swiss  university.  In  1890 
the  institution  was  chartered  under  the  laws  of  the  state 
of  Massachusetts  as  the  American  College  for  Girls. 
By  a  new  charter  in  1908  the  institution  became  entirely 
independent  of  the  Board,  money  for  the  plant  and 
endowment  being  secured  in  one  year  which  more  than 
equaled  all  that  the  Board  had  put  into  the  institution 
by  the  labor  and  sacrifice  of  a  generation.  Since  191 2 
it  has  been  known  officially  as  Constantinople  College. 
In  that  year  fourteen  different  nationalities  were  enrolled 
among  its  students.  The  course  leading  to  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  231 

best  American  colleges  for  women.  The  college  declares 
itself  a  Christian  college  yet  adds  that  no  student  is 
refused  admittance  to  the  college  or  denied  any  of  its 
privileges,  honors,  or  degrees  on  account  of  her  religious 
opinions. 

The  International  College  at  Smyrna  and  the  Ameri- 
can Collegiate  Institute  for  Girls  at  Smyrna  are  still  to 
some  extent  under  the  guidance  and  responsibility  of  the 
American  Board,  but  are  far  on  the  way  toward  that 
independence  which  is  the  goal  of  the  development  of 
all  these  institutions.  Anatolia  College  at  Marsovan 
with  its  theological  seminary,  Euphrates  College  at 
Harpoot,  also  with  a  seminary,  Central  Turkey  College 
at  Aintab,  Central  Turkey  College  for  Girls  at  Marash, 
St.  Paul's  Institute  at  Tarsus,  schools  like  those  at 
Van  and  Bitlis  just  advancing  to  college  grade,  with  a 
whole  network  of  secondary  and  primary  schools  and 
kindergartens  all  over  Asia  Minor,  are  still  part  of  the 
Board's  plant  and  show  how  uniformly  Christian  edu- 
cation has  been  apprehended  as  the  key  to  the  Ottoman 
problem.  Practically  all  of  these  schools  and  colleges 
in  the  interior  have  been  used  as  relief  stations  and 
orphanages  since  the  war  began.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  Board's  staff,  both  men  and  women, 
has  remained  to  carry  on  this  relief.  They  have 
witnessed  the  sufferings  of  the  Armenians.  Their  aid 
is  accepted  by  the  Turks.  The  medical  work  has  of 
course  played  a  prominent  part  in  this  relief. 

190.  Medical  work. — From  the  earliest  years  of  the 
mission  physicians  have  had  place  on  the  staff.  Dr. 
Van  Dyke  came  to  Beirut  in  1840.  His  later  activities 
were,  however,  largely  in  the  direction  of  literary  work. 


232  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Dr.  Post  was  pre-eminent  as  physician  and  surgeon. 
He  won  distinction  as  an  author  in  medical  and  scientific 
subjects.  For  a  generation  there  existed  in  Beirut 
an  interesting  example  of  international  and  inter- 
denominational co-operation  in  medical  work.  The 
German  hospital  called  after  the  Order  of  St.  John  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  American  physicians  and 
surgeons  while  Kaiserwerth  deaconesses  were  responsible 
for  the  nursing.  There  is  a  hospital  of  the  Orthodox 
Greeks  in  Beirut  before  which  the  authorities  have  set 
up  a  statue  of  Van  Dyke  in  recognition  of  their  debt  to 
the  pioneer  missionary  physician.  Dr.  Mary  Eddy 
traveled  for  years  through  the  most  difficult  and  dan- 
gerous portions  of  the  country  about  Beirut  to  do  medi- 
cal work  on  behalf  of  women.  No  doubt  the  tradition 
of  the  Beirut  Presbyterian  Mission  in  this  regard  led 
naturally  to  the  development  of  the  Beirut  Medical 
School.  Constantinople  was  a  place  of  such  concourse  of 
foreigners  and  the  cultivation  of  all  their  interests  that 
the  place  has  never  had  need  of  a  high  development  of 
medical  practice  or  teaching  under  specific  missionary 
auspices.  In  Middle  and  Eastern  Asia  Minor  almost 
every  larger  station  has  been  a  center  for  medical 
work.  The  names  of  West,  of  Sivas,  Raynolds,  of  Van, 
Shepard,  of  Aintab,  Dodd  and  Post,  of  Talas,  Thorn, 
of  Mardin,  Atkinson,  of  Harpoot,  as  also  of  Miss  Cush- 
man,  of  Konia,  Miss  Graffam,  of  Sivas,  and  Miss  Willard, 
of  Marsovan,  will  not  easily  be  forgotten.  These  are 
only  representatives  of  a  great  number  of  thoroughly 
trained  physicians,  both  men  and  women,  who  have 
given  themselves  to  the  relief  of  suffering  of  both 
Moslems  and  Christians  in  a  land  where,  for  one  cause 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  233 

and  another,  the  misery  has  been  as  great  in  the  last 
four  years  as  in  any  portion  of  the  world.  Women 
physicians  have  attained  especial  prominence  in  Persia. 
191.  The  Ottoman  situation. — Allusion  was  made 
above  in  passing  to  the  decay  of  the  Ottoman  power  in 
the  course  of  the  last  century.  The  Peace  of  Paris  at 
the  end  of  the  Crimean  War  had  given  the  Porte  a 
standing  as  a  European  power.  Two  great  Christian 
powers,  France  and  England,  had  fought  upon  the  side 
of  the  Turk  against  a  third,  Russia.  They  then 
demanded  of  Turkey  certain  reforms  in  administration, 
particularly  in  respect  to  the  treatment  of  the  Christian 
subject  peoples.  It  was  ostensibly  to  guarantee  the 
defense  of  those  Christian  subject  peoples,  or  a  part  of 
them,  that  Russia  also  had  entered  the  war.  The 
Western  European  powers  felt  that  Russia  had  other 
ends  at  stake.  The  Porte  might  be  pardoned  for 
assuming  that  England  and  France  also  had  other 
ends  at  stake.  At  all  events  there  was  created  or  at 
least  confirmed  a  situation  in  which  it  became  for  two 
generations  the  main  item  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Turkey 
to  play  off  one  set  of  European  powers  against  the  other. 
The  Ottoman  debt  became  an  investment  for  English 
and  French  capital  and  grew  to  stupendous  proportions 
compared  with  any  tangible  assets  which  the  country 
possessed.  It  became  an  obvious  means  of  averting  the 
resort  on  the  part  of  any  of  the  powers  to  extreme 
measures.  The  deeper  the  Turk  was  in  debt  the 
more  certain  it  was  that  the  rival  powers  would  never 
permit  any  one  of  their  number  to  force  the  debtor 
into  bankruptcy.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
English  in  particular  cherished  sincere  hopes  that  kind 


234  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  generous  measures  would  aid  the  government  to 
reform  itself. 

192.  Internal  questions;  subject  populations. — When 
Abdul  Hamid  II  came  to  the  throne  in  1876  he  granted 
a  constitution  which  was  almost  immediately  withdrawn. 
There  grew  up  slowly  at  first  and  more  decisively  before 
the  end  of  his  long  reign  a  reforming  movement  among 
the  Turks  themselves.  This  Party  of  Progress  or 
Young  Turk  movement  desired  certain  changes  in  the 
direction  of  representative  government.  They  wished 
to  open  their  country  to  certain  influences  of  the  West. 
Their  movement  always  suffered  from  an  inner  contra- 
diction. A  progressive  Turkey  would  surely  become  one 
in  which  the  exclusive  rights  and  privileges  which  the 
Turks  had  had  ever  since  the  conquest  would  be  dimin- 
ished. The  old  Sultan  seems  to  have  seen  this  more 
clearly  than  did  the  reformers.  It  was  surely  true 
that  in  a  freer  Turkey  education  and  morals  would 
count  for  more.  In  a  prosperous  industrial  Turkey 
in  which  money  had  other  uses  than  merely  the  paying 
of  taxes  the  Armenians  would  take  a  different  place. 
The  Greeks  would  not  be  far  behind.  The  old  racial 
animosity  and  religious  hatred  counted  for  something. 
Yet  some  additional  reasons  such  as  those  above  sug- 
gested must  be  imagined  to  explain  the  fact  that  in 
most  recent  times,  when  the  advanced  advocates  of 
Turkish  progress  have  certainly  not  been  of  the  intense 
religious  fervor  of  their  ancestors,  the  persecutions  of 
the  Armenians  have  increased.  Recently  when  the 
call  of  the  rulers  to  a  Holy  War  has  fallen  upon  deaf 
ears,  when  nobody  pretends  that  the  prime  movers 
among  the  Turks  are  led  by  any  but  cynically  secular 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  235 

motives,  the  effort  at  the  extermination  of  the  whole 
race  of  the  Armenians  has  been  made  with  unexampled 
plan  and  pertinacity.  The  last  twenty-five  years  have 
witnessed  the  exacerbation  of  the  lot  of  the  subject 
populations  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  and  particularly 
of  the  Armenians  in  a  measure  which  is  almost  beyond 
belief.  The  Greeks  had  suffered  at  Chios,  but  part  of 
Greece  at  least  had  been  able  to  win  independence. 
The  Bulgarians  had  suffered  horribly  before  1877,  but 
the  Bulgarians  by  the  aid  of  Russia  had  won  their 
independence.  There  was  no  such  hope  for  the  Arme- 
nians. 

193.  The  Armenians. — After  the  defeat  of  Turkey  by 
Russia  in  the  war  of  1877-78,  when  the  treaty  of 
San  Stefano  was  revised  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin, 
the  concert  of  the  six  major  European  powers  demanded 
comprehensive  reforms  especially  for  Armenia.  The 
official  document  of  the  congress  reads  thus:  "The 
Sublime  Porte  undertakes  without  delay  to  carry  out 
the  ameliorations  and  reforms  which  are  demanded  by 
the  local  conditions  in  the  provinces  inhabited  by  the 
Armenians."  The  powers  were,  however,  not  at  one 
among  themselves.  The  diplomacy  of  the  next  genera- 
tion was  a  humiliating  chapter  of  mistakes  and  uncer- 
tainties. The  guardianship  of  Europe  over  the  subjects 
of  the  Porte  was  irritating  to  the  latter.  The  prosperity 
of  the  Armenians  in  particular  was  viewed  by  the  Turks 
much  as  that  of  the  Jews  was  viewed  in  the  Christian 
states  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Armenians  who  had  been 
able  to  leave  Turkey  agitated  from  a  safe  distance,  not 
always  realizing  the  consequences  to  their  compatriots 
in  the  land.     There  were  allegations  of  preparation  for 


236  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

rebellion  and  rash  steps  at  least  by  individuals.  The 
old  method  was  usually  adopted,  not  of  dealing  with  the 
individuals  who  were  suspected  or  proved  guilty,  but  of 
visiting  their  supposed  sins  on  their  race  en  masse. 
The  confidence  of  the  government  that  the  powers  would 
not  effectively  interfere  was  justified.  From  September, 
1895,  until  June,  1896,  there  was  something  like  a  reign 
of  terror,  especially  for  the  Armenians.  The  Moslem 
populace  was  let  loose  in  fury.  The  course  of  events 
gave  only  too  much  color  to  the  assumption  that  the 
government  was  complacent.  There  perished  ninety 
thousand  Armenians  of  whom  ten  thousand  were  Prot- 
estants. More  than  half  a  million  were  absolutely  im- 
poverished. Two  hundred  and  sixty-eight  churches  were 
destroyed  and  half  that  number  turned  into  mosques. 
The  missions  everywhere  were  reduced  to  serving  merely 
as  centers  of  relief.  Great  sums  were  raised  in  Europe 
and  America.  Industrial  missions  as  a  phase  of  work 
in  the  Ottoman  Empire  came  into  being  at  this  time  and 
in  connection  largely  with  the  orphanages.  The  change 
of  government  in  1908  gave  hope  that  this  terrible 
chapter  was  ended.  These  hopes  have  been  doomed 
to  the  bitterest  disappointment. 

194.  The  revolution  in  Turkey. — In  1908  Macedonian 
questions  almost  brought  about  an  intervention  of  the 
powers  such  as  Lord  Salisbury  had  urged  in  1896. 
A  revolution  in  Turkey  in  that  year  surprised  the 
world  and  raised  hopes  that  the  Turks  would  now 
address  themselves  to  the  tasks  from  which  the  powers, 
despite  their  protests,  had  manifestly  shrunk.  On 
July  23,  1908,  the  Committee  of  Union  and  Progress 
under   the   presidency   of  Enver  Bey  proclaimed   the 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  237 

constitution  in  Salonica  and  threatened  to  march  on 
Constantinople.  The  sultan  yielded,  proclaimed  the 
restitution  of  the  constitution  of  1876,  and  ordered 
the  election  of  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Although  it 
was  made  clear  that  the  revolution  was  essentially  a 
Turkish  affair,  Kiamil  Pasha,  an  advanced  liberal, 
became  grand  vizier,  and  a  Greek,  an  Armenian,  and 
the  Sheikh-ul-Islam,  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Moslem 
world,  took  places  in  the  cabinet.  The  sultan  opened 
the  parliament.  In  1909  a  counter-revolution  almost 
succeeded  in  ridding  the  sultan  of  the  reformers  and 
restoring  to  him  his  absolute  power.  The  Assembly 
declared  itself  in  favor  of  the  Committee.  Shevket 
Pasha  after  severe  fighting  occupied  the  capital.  The 
sultan  was  deposed  and  removed  to  Salonica.  Rishad 
Effendi,  the  brother  of  the  sultan,  was  chosen  in  his 
place  and  took  the  title  of  Mohammed  V,  the  Sheikh- 
ul-Islam  taking  part  in  these  proceedings.  The  reorgani- 
zation of  the  army  was  intrusted  to  the  German  General 
von  der  Goltz,  that  of  the  navy  to  Admiral  Sir  Douglas 
Gamble.  There  were  wonderful  expressions  of  hope  and 
fraternal  feeling  in  the  empire  at  this  time.  Also  there 
was  an  intensification  of  foreign  intrigue.  Reforms 
lagged.  The  educational  program  which  had  been 
announced  was  held  in  abeyance.  The  finances  were 
in  hopeless  condition.  The  animus  of  the  ruling  circles 
showed  itself  in  a  ruthless  policy  of  Ottomanization.  For 
the  fervid  Mohammedans  of  Arabia,  who  viewed  them- 
selves as  somehow  the  soul  of  the  empire  and  who  were 
the  keepers  of  the  sacred  places,  Ottomanization  meant 
more  of  Western  civilization  than  they  wished.  For 
the    Balkan    peoples    Ottomanization    meant    less    of 


238  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Western  civilization  than  they  already  had.  The 
seizure  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  by  Austria  seemed  a 
violation  of  the  kind  of  tacit  agreement  which  prevailed 
to  let  the  Turks  work  out  their  own  salvation  if  they 
could.  The  Italian  invasion  of  Tripoli  made  the  same 
impression.  A  wise  observer  of  Ottoman  affairs  had 
said  that  if  the  Balkan  States  could  only  unite  in  a 
common  effort  they  might  drive  out  the  Turk,  but 
even  if  they  should  do  this  they  would  disagree  again 
among  themselves  and  then  the  Turk  would  claim  his 
own  again.  Precisely  this  happened.  At  the  end  of 
the  first  Balkan  war  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  reduced 
to  a  little  strip  of  territory  about  Constantinople.  At 
the  end  of  the  second  (191 2-13)  the  Turks  had  regained 
a  good  part  of  what  they  had  lost,  and  the  Balkan 
powers,  embittered  in  their  fratricidal  struggle,  had 
taken  up  the  alignment  which  more  or  less  they  have 
observed  in  the  world- war  which  was  so  soon  to  follow. 
Mohammed  V  died  in  19 18. 

195.  The  Turks  and  the  Great  War. — In  the  present 
war  Bulgaria  took  the  side  of  the  Central  Powers  and 
was  soon  followed  by  the  Porte.  Enver  and  Talaat 
Bey,  the  most  influential  persons,  had  long  looked  to 
Germany  to  aid  them  in  their  projects.  The  Germans 
had  had  much  to  do  with  development  of  the  railroads  so 
essential  to  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  so  essential  also  to 
the  schemes  of  Germany.  German  diplomacy  had  for 
years  been  gaining  ascendancy  at  Constantinople. 
English  and  French  influence  once  potent  had  waned. 
The  ruling  spirits  in  New  Turkey  had  had  experience  of 
that  influence.  They  thought  they  saw  their  interest 
in  the  alliance  with  the  Central  Powers.     To  an  outsider 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  239 

it  would  have  seemed  that  they  were  likely  at  the  most 
to  learn  that  what  Rehoboam  said  of  his  father's 
sovereignty  in  comparison  with  his  own  would  prove 
true.  It  was  hardly  to  be  foreseen  that  almost  the 
first  consequence  of  the  entrance  of  Turkey  upon  the 
war  was  the  letting  loose  once  more  of  the  spirit  of 
persecution  on  the  poor  Armenians.  In  the  old  days 
none  but  Turks  served  in  the  army.  Under  the  reforms 
the  subject  Christians  have  been  taken  for  compulsory 
service  as  well.  The  men  being  everywhere  absent 
with  the  troops,  the  aged  and  the  women  and  the  children 
have  in  many  places  been  deported  almost  upon  a 
moment's  notice.  They  have  been  sent  forth  by  tens 
of  thousands  in  utter  helplessness  upon  journeys  in 
which  it  was  quite  impossible  that  anything  but  the 
smallest  remnant  should  reach  the  goal.  No  one  knows 
as  yet  how  many  have  perished.  There  has  been  such 
plan  and  system  in  the  deportations  that  it  is  impossible 
to  acquit  the  government.  Exactly  what  was  the  end 
in  view  is  not  clear.  Enough  is  known  to  justify  the 
assertion  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  awful  calamities 
which  have  ever  befallen  a  helpless  people.  The  end 
is  not  yet. 

196.  The  present  situation. — All  the  subject  peoples 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire  have  suffered.  The  Turks 
themselves  are  doubtless  suffering.  The  Arabs  of  the 
whole  west  side  of  the  peninsula,  the  region  of  the  sacred 
cities,  disapproving  of  the  course  taken  at  Constanti- 
nople revolted  and  set  up  a  state  of  their  own  which 
co-operated  with  the  Entente.  The  fact  is  not  without 
bearing  upon  the  loyalty  of  Moslems  under  the  British 
crown.     Everywhere   in   tins   misery   the   missionaries 


240  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

have  stood  to  their  task.  They  have  been  the  main 
instrument  in  the  distribution  of  the  charity  of  European 
nations  and  America  in  the  effort  to  feed  the  hungry, 
to  clothe  the  naked,  to  heal  the  sick  and  wounded,  to 
care  for  widows  and  orphans,  and  to  hold  all  that  can 
be  held  for  the  national  welfare  in  the  better  time  which 
is  to  be.  Not  a  few  missionaries  have  died  at  their 
posts,  only  a  very  few  by  violence,  far  more  by  disease 
or  else  worn  out  through  the  long  strain.  The  saying 
has  verified  itself  which  was  made  by  an  old  pasha 
fifty  years  ago :  "  No  matter  what  you  do  to  those  people 
you  will  never  get  them  out  of  the  country,  because  they 
have  come  here  for  our  sakes. "  The  measure  of  the 
missionary  catastrophe  in  Asia  Minor  may  be  thus 
stated.  In  many  places  not  merely  is  the  work  destroyed 
but  almost  all  the  people  for  whom  and  by  whom  that 
work  was  being  done  and  with  whom  lay  the  future  of 
it  have  been  destroyed  as  well.  It  may  be  that  out 
of  the  crisis  through  which  the  Turks  are  passing 
and  are  yet  to  pass,  by  the  spectacle  of  the  sufferings 
and  by  the  influence  of  the  spirit  of  the  Christian 
population,  the  Moslem  population  will  be  accessible 
as  never  before. 

197.  The  Moslem  world  outside  the  Ottoman  Empire; 
Malaysia;  India. — Disproportionate  space  has  been 
given  to  the  missions  to  the  relatively  small  Christian 
populations  in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Those  who  have 
prosecuted  these  missions  believed  that  besides  the 
worthiness  of  the  work  in  itself  it  afforded  an  approach 
to  the  Moslem  problem  as  a  whole.  Yet,  when  all  is 
said,  the  hope  of  missions  to  Moslems  is  greater  almost 
anywhere  else  on  earth  than  under  the  rule  of  the  sultan. 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  241 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  Mohammedans  are  under  the  rule  of  the 
nations  of  Christendom.  Where  these  guarantee  pro- 
tection change  of  faith  is  by  no  means  infrequent. 
In  India  and  Malaysia  alone  are  half  the  Mussulmans 
of  the  world,  and  in  these  countries  notable  progress 
has  been  made.  In  Java  the  vast  majority  of  the  thirty 
millions  of  the  population  are  Moslems.  The  Estab- 
lished church  of  Holland  ministers  to  Javanese  whose 
ancestors  became  Christian  four  or  five  generations  ago. 
A  Moslem  university  has  been  established  at  Batavia, 
showing  that  the  faith  of  the  Prophet  is  represented  in 
the  highest  classes  of  society  and  avails  itself  of  methods 
introduced  by  the  Christians  in  order  to  meet  the  Chris- 
tian propaganda.  The  Jesuits  have  a  mission  in  Batavia 
which  counts  thirty  thousand  adherents  of  the  Roman 
church,  many  of  whom  have  been  drawn  from  among  the 
Moslem  population.  In  Sumatra  the  Rhenish  Mission- 
ary Society,  working  in  conjunction  with  the  Dutch, 
has  done  a  wonderful  work  among  the  Bataks  in  the 
interior  of  the  island.  In  India  the  case  is  still  more 
striking.  Here  for  the  most  part  effort  has  not  been 
made  to  meet  the  Mohammedans  as  a  separate  element 
in  the  population.  Perhaps  less  animosity  is  aroused  in 
this  way.  In  the  Punjab  and  the  Northwest  Province 
almost  every  congregation  has  a  representative  from  the 
Moslem  ranks.  Some  of  the  churches  have  a  majority 
of  their  membership  gathered  from  this  source.  No 
one  society  or  denomination  has  the  pre-eminence  in 
this  work.  The  Mohammedan  races  of  North  India 
are  among  the  most  vigorous  of  the  people,  not  only 
famous  fighters,  but  men  of  renown  in  the  intellectual 


242  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

life  as  well.  A  distinguished  Indian  Christian,  Imad- 
ud-din,  of  illustrious  Moslem  family,  appended  to  a 
paper  written  for  the  Chicago  Conference  of  Religions 
more  than  twenty  years  ago  a  list  of  the  names  of  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  converts  from  Islam  to  Chris- 
tianity who  were  occupying  high  positions  in  state  01 
church  in  India. 

198.  Persia;  Transcaucasia. — The  Persians  are  the 
only  Aryan  race  which  ever  accepted  Islam.  Henry 
Martyn,  a  chaplain  under  the  East  India  Company, 
learned  Persian  in  India  and  then  asked  to  be  transferred 
to  Persia  that  he  might  revise  his  translation  of  the  Bible 
and  seek  to  win  the  Moslems.  The  American  Board 
established  a  station  among  the  Nestorians  in  1834 
which  was  passed  over  to  the  Presbyterians  in  187 1 
and  has  worked  successfully  among  the  Kurds.  The 
Presbyterian  mission  has  been  far  more  effective  than 
its  predecessor  in  work  for  the  Mohammedans.  In 
this  connection  it  is  illuminating  to  note  the  Russian 
influence  also  upon  the  Moslem  populations  in  certain 
parts  of  the  Russian  Empire  in  Southwestern  Asia. 
The  Mohammedan  kingdom  of  Kazan  was  conquered 
by  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  1552.  The  Russification  of 
these  provinces  included  the  forcible  conversion  of  many 
to  the  Orthodox  creed.  Yet  at  the  present  day  fully 
half  of  the  population  of  these  regions  is  Moslem  and 
more  than  half  of  the  people  of  Turkestan  and  Russian 
Tatary.  In  the  year  1850  the  Russian  church  had  come 
to  a  better  understanding  of  the  nature  of  missionary 
work.  Veniaminoff  was  the  typical  figure.  He  was 
made  missionary  bishop  in  1867  and  later  metropolitan 
of  Moscow.     In  1870  he  founded  the  Orthodox  Mis- 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  243 

sionary  Society  of  the  Russian  church  to  assist  in  the 
conversion  of  non-Christian  peoples  within  the  limits  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  The  labor  of  the  Society  has 
extended  widely  in  the  Moslem  provinces.  Ilminsky, 
long  years  a  missionary  in  Siberia,  became  professor  of 
Eastern  languages  in  the  University  of  Kazan,  translated 
the  Bible  into  Tatar,  inaugurated  a  great  scheme  for 
the  education  of  those  provinces,  and  exerted  influence 
both  upon  the  Moslems  and  upon  the  tribes  who  turning 
away  from  their  paganism  often  became  Moslems. 
The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  a  mission  at  Quetta 
which  has  been  a  center  for  work  not  alone  in  Baluchistan 
but  also  over  the  border  in  Afghanistan.  Pennell  spent 
years  on  the  Afghan  border  and  even  went  to  Kabul 
and  Kandahar.  Lord  Roberts  said  that  no  more  heroic 
life  was  ever  spent  in  the  effort  to  make  known  to  these 
remote  and  warlike  peoples  what  Christianity  really 
meant. 

199.  Egypt  and  Arabia. — One  of  the  most  significant 
efforts  on  behalf  of  Moslems  is  that  which  has  long  been 
conducted  in  Egypt  and  in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  so  far  as 
the  Egyptian  Sudan  primarily  by  United  Presbyterians 
from  America.  The  rebellion  of  Mohammed  AH  broke 
the  power  of  the  Porte  in  Egypt.  A  more  or  less  in- 
dependent Moslem  rule  was  maintained  there,  although 
the  khedive  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  sultan. 
The  deposition  of  the  khedive  in  19 15  by  the  British 
put  an  end  to  that.  In  return  for  being  supported  by 
the  European  powers  AH  opened  Egypt  to  European 
influence.  France  built  the  Suez  Canal  and  for  a  time 
was  preponderant  in  Egyptian  affairs.  After  188 1 
England  asserted  her  mastery.     Whatever  may  be  said 


244  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  the  method  of  coming  by  that  control  the  development 
of  the  country  under  the  long  and  able  administration 
of  Lord  Cromer  made  Egypt  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
Eastern  World.  Cairo  is  the  meeting-place  of  three 
continents,  and,  though  not  ancient,  preserves  in  some 
ways  as  distinct  a  flavor  of  Moslem  Egypt  in  the  days 
of  its  glory  as  can  anywhere  be  found.  Among  the 
wonders  wrought  in  Lord  Cromer's  administration  is  a 
system  of  public  instruction  similar  to  that  in  India, 
with  a  state  university  at  Cairo  at  its  head.  The 
United  Presbyterians  had  had,  long  before  the  English 
occupation,  a  system  of  mission  schools  which  from  the 
sea  to  Luxor  worked  for  the  fellahin.  They  also  are 
seeking  to  develop  in  Cairo  a  university,  parallel,  one 
might  say,  to  Robert  College  in  Constantinople.  Then 
too  the  rich  Mohammedans,  not  alone  of  Egypt  but 
in  a  measure  from  all  over  the  Moslem  West,  are  endeav- 
oring to  build  up  a  real  university.  They  desire  to 
differentiate  their  aim  from  the  purely  propagandist 
purposes  of  Al  Azhar.  This  last,  although  often  called 
the  Mohammedan  University  of  Cairo,  aims  to  do 
nothing  but  to  prepare  Moslem  missionaries  for  the 
great  work  which  is  going  on  in  Africa.  It  is  said  to 
have  twelve  thousand  students.  They  are,  however, 
largely  without  previous  education.  Their  sole  study  is 
the  interpretation  of  the  Koran.  It  could  not  even  be 
called  a  theological  seminary,  for  the  Mohammedan 
faith  has,  strictly  speaking,  no  class  of  persons  corre- 
sponding to  priests  or  ministers.  The  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  began  work  for  Moslems  in  1882,  the  year 
after  the  British  occupation.  The  center  of  their  work 
also  is  at  Cairo.    Thornton,  their  ablest  missionary, 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  245 

did  much  to  interpret  Christianity  to  the  Mohammedans. 
Gardiner  is  his  worthy  successor  and  an  authority  on 
many  Moslem  questions.  The  mission  publishes  a 
newspaper  in  Arabic  which  is  allowed  to  circulate  even 
in  Al  Azhar.  Arabia,  the  first  Mohammedan  land, 
is  also  the  last  to  be  entered  by  the  Christian  missionary 
propaganda.  When  Professor  Edward  Palmer  made  his 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  disguised  as  an  Arab  there  was  no 
moment  of  the  many  months  of  his  journey  when  his 
life  would  not  have  been  forfeit  had  he  been  detected. 
For  its  vast  size  Arabia  has  a  very  sparse  population 
confined  almost  necessarily  to  the  borders  of  the  penin- 
sula. The  life  of  these  earliest  followers  of  the  great 
Arabian  has  probably  changed  less  in  the  thirteen 
hundred  years  since  the  Hegira  than  has  the  life  of  any 
equal  number  of  people  on  the  earth.  Yet  the  spirit 
of  the  modern  world  has  at  last  touched  even  them.  The 
commerce  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  began  the 
movement.  The  development  of  Syria  southward  from 
Damascus  and  of  the  railways  reaching  almost  to  Mecca 
have  carried  it  forward.  The  declaration  of  war  on  the 
part  of  the  Arab  chiefs  against  the  Sultan  in  191 7  may 
carry  them  farther  than  anybody  now  imagines.  So 
early  as  1885  Ion  Keith  Falconer,  a  Scotchman,  reader 
in  Arabic  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  under  the 
impulse  probably  of  Palmer,  made  a  preliminary  visit 
to  Aden.  In  1887  he  inaugurated  a  work  near  Aden  on 
behalf  of  the  Arabs  and  Somali  negroes  from  the  main- 
land who  also  were  devout  Mohammedans.  After 
four  months  he  died.  The  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  has  carried  forward  his  endeavor,  which  is  as 
yet    mainly    medical    and    educational.     In    1889    an 


246  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

undenominational  mission  was  established  in  America 
to  support  work  among  Moslems  in  Arabia.  This  was 
presently  taken  over  by  the  Reformed  Dutch  church 
in  America.  In  addition  to  its  work  at  Muscat  and 
Bahrein  it  has  stations  outside  the  peninsula  in  Bassora 
and  Koweyt.  The  best  known  of  its  missionaries  is 
Zwemer. 

200.  Outlook  of  Islam. — It  will  be  evident  from  what 
has  been  said  that  there  is  a  significant  drift  of  modern- 
ized Moslems  away  from  the  faith  of  their  fathers  and 
also  away  from  any  faith  whatsoever.  This  last  is  the 
parallel  of  much  that  is  taking  place  in  Christendom; 
only  an  Arab  or  a  Turk  who  despises  Christianity,  not 
because  he  adheres  to  Islam  but  because  he  respects  no 
religion,  is  a  novelty.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a 
great  stirring  of  missionary  zeal  in  other  circles  of 
Mohammedans  in  many  nations.  A  great  effort  is 
being  made  especially  in  Africa  to  offset  the  losses  which 
Islam  has  suffered.  There  are  said  to  be  forty-two 
million  Moslems  in  Airica,  half  of  them  south  of  the 
twentieth  parallel  of  latitude  and  many  of  them  recent 
converts  from  their  immemorial  paganism.  There  is  a 
Pan-Islamism  which  relates  to  the  faith  which  seems 
likely  to  be  far  more  successful  than  the  Pan-Islamism 
which  has  proved  an  ignis  fatuus  to  the  new  leaders  of 
the  Ottoman  state.  Contact  with  the  outside  world 
has  done  much  to  mitigate  the  old  prejudice  of  Moslems 
against  Christians  as  also  those  of  Christians  against 
Moslems.  The  way  is  open  as  it  never  was  before. 
Mohammedanism  may  now  very  easily  and  very  soon 
become  just  what  Judaism  has  long  been,  a  faith  without 
a  country.    Whether  Moslems  in  these  circumstances 


THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  247 

will  show  the  qualities  which  the  Jews  have  shown  in 
like  case  is  an  interesting  question.  It  is  certain  that 
a  faith  which  has  so  long  met  the  religious  needs  of  many 
different  races  has  large  elements  of  vitality  in  it. 
It  is  equally  certain  that  a  race  which  has  played  so 
disastrous  a  role  in  the  history  of  Islam  itself  as  the  Turk 
has  played  for  four  centuries  past  will  not  exert  much 
power  in  free  competition  with  men  of  superior  races 
professing  the  same  faith.  The  fall  of  the  Turk  may 
mean  both  the  opening  of  the  Moslem  world  yet  wider 
to  Christianity  and  as  well  the  recovery  of  Islam  to 
its  own  better  self. 


CHAPTER  XI 
AFRICA 


CHAPTER  XI 

AFRICA 

201.  The  Africa  of  the  Moors 

202.  The  real  Africa 

203.  Beginnings  of  missionary  work;  Portuguese  and  Dutch 

204.  British  effort;  African  colonization 

205.  Exploration  and  discovery 

206.  Livingstone 

207.  Uganda 

208.  Nigeria;  Bishop  Crowther 

209.  The  Congo 

210.  South  Africa 

211.  Industrial  education;  Lovedale 

212.  The  French  in  South  Africa  and  Madagascar 

213.  German  missions 

214.  The  partition  of  Africa 

215.  The  outlook 


CHAPTER  XI 
AFRICA 

201.  The  Africa  of  the  Moors. — Egypt  has  belonged 
until  within  three  years  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
north  coast  of  Africa,  once  the  seat  of  a  flourishing 
Christianity,  has  belonged  for  twelve  hundred  years  to 
the  Moslem  world.  The  old  civilizations  which  lay 
one  over  the  other,  Phoenician,  Hellenic,  Roman,  were 
jeopardized  already  by  the  Vandals  and  completely 
overthrown  by  the  Moors.  From  Africa  the  Moors 
entered  Spain.  From  Spain  they  entered  Gaul.  At 
Tours  they  were  hurled  back  by  Charles  Martel.  Only 
by  the  span  between  Tours  and  Vienna  did  the  Mos- 
lems fail  at  one  time  or  another  to  encircle  the  Medi- 
terranean. By  their  mastery  of  the  sea  they  once 
imperiled  even  the  lands  which  lay  within  that  span. 
The  Moorish  civilization  has  vanished.  Intense  Mo- 
hammedanism survives.  Some  Christian  missionary 
work  has  been  done  in  Morocco  and  Algiers  by  the 
French,  none  as  yet  in  Tripoli  by  the  Italians.  Tunis 
and  Algiers  were  long  ago  the  scene  of  the  labors  of 
Raimundus  Lullus,  a  native  of  Majorca,  who,  inspired 
by  the  example  of  St.  Francis,  became  a  missionary  to 
Moslems.  He  labored  to  persuade  the  pope  that  the 
policy  of  the  Crusades  was  anti-Christian.  He  spent 
years  in  prison  in  Africa  and  was  twice  deported. 
He  returned  to  Bugia  at  the  age  of  eighty  to  encourage 
his  converts,  and  he  was  stoned  to  death  by  the  mob. 
This  was  in  13 15. 

251 


252  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

202.  The  real  Africa. — With  the  exception  of  Egypt 
and  the  northern  coast  we  shall  mean  when  we  speak 
of  Africa  that  portion  of  the  continent  which  lies  south 
of  the  Sahara.  It  is  the  Africa  whose  coasts  have  been 
cursed  with  the  slave  trade.  It  is  the  Africa  whose 
middle  basin,  lower  than  the  mountains  which  fringe 
it,  is  the  source  of  the  great  rivers,  and  whose  dry  table- 
land at  the  south  with  its  riches  in  minerals  is  now 
the  meeting-place  of  jealous  nations.  We  shall  mean 
the  Africa  which  has  been  called  almost  until  our  own 
day  the  Dark  Continent,  the  Africa  of  a  large  part  of 
which  the  geographers  of  the  Napoleonic  era  were  as 
ignorant  as  Herodotus.  We  shall  mean  the  Africa  of 
the  negro  races  and  the  pagan  faiths.  Describing  it 
in  these  general  terms  we  do  not  forget  the  multi- 
plicity of  its  tribes  with  their  different  languages  and 
their  traditional  animosities.  Whether  in  the  south  for 
its  wool  and  hides,  its  metals  and  precious  stones,  or 
in  the  equatorial  basin  for  its  rubber  and  ivory,  its 
woods  and  slaves,  Africa  has  tempted  men  of  every 
nation  to  resort  thither  to  make  gain  or  to  find  adven- 
ture. The  Africans  themselves  have  in  countless  gener- 
ations evolved  no  higher  civilization  of  their  own. 
They  are  the  almost  helpless  prey  of  those  who,  while 
not  all  wholly  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  the  black 
man,  have  certainly  not  served  God  or  the  African  for 
nought.  They  are  the  wards  of  protectorates  whose 
main  purpose  has  seemed  at  times  to  be  to  prevent  rival 
European  nations  from  enjoying  the  profits  incidental 
to  the  protection  afforded.  Nevertheless,  save  by  the 
havoc  of  the  slave  trade  the  Africans  do  not  appear 
to  have  diminished  in  numbers  or  virility.     They  have 


AFRICA  253 

not,  by  and  large,  taken  high  place  in  the  white  man's 
civilization  which  is  overrunning  their  land.  The  black 
man's  adoption  of  the  white  man's  religion  has  not 
yet  carried  him  very  far  beyond  the  imitative  stages 
of  a  rather  crude  experience.  Individuals  may  be 
pointed  to  as  exceptions  to  every  statement  here  made. 
Yet  the  statements  will  be  found  descriptive  of  a  situa- 
tion which  obtains  with  tragic  uniformity  amidst  all 
the  variety  which  Africa  presents  from  Khartoum  to 
the  Cape  and  from  Sierra  Leone  to  Somaliland.  There 
is  no  land  of  which  we  have  to  speak  in  which  mis- 
sionary work  of  whatever  sort,  medical,  economic, 
social,  educational,  philanthropic,  spiritual,  is  limited 
to  such  a  monotonous  level.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
divided  into  numberless  fragments  by  geographical  and 
political  and  lingual  differences  which  are  as  yet  unsur- 
mountable. 

203.  Beginnings  of  missionary  work;  Portuguese  and 
Dutch. — Against  so  gray  a  background,  it  is  to  be  added 
that  the  earlier  efforts  at  mission  work  almost  tempt 
one's  sense  of  humor,  so  inadequate  were  some  of  them 
and  so  sadly  do  others  illustrate  the  spirit  of  their 
times.  It  is  mainly  within  the  last  two  generations, 
often  within  but  one  generation,  that  the  work  has 
reached  such  a  level  as  to  command  enthusiasm  and 
justify  high  hope.  What  we  read  of  the  coming  of  the 
Portuguese  to  the  Congo  in  1491  reflects  largely  the 
evil  of  the  Europe  of  the  time.  The  missionaries 
baptized  the  king  of  the  Congo  and  many  of  his  chiefs 
in  great  state.  He  commanded  his  subjects  to  abandon 
their  idols  upon  pain  of  being  burnt  alive.  Images  of 
the  saints  were,   however,   offered  to  them  to  make 


254  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

good  their  loss.  The  missionaries  were  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Augustinians,  and  Jesuits.  They  quarreled 
among  themselves  so  fiercely  that  the  king  sent  them 
all  home  to  Portugal  in  irons.  A  marble  chair  used  to 
be  shown  standing  against  a  pier  of  the  cathedral  at 
St.  Paul  de  Loanda  from  which  the  bishops  used  to 
give  their  blessing  to  the  slave  ships  as  these  sailed 
away  with  their  precious  cargo  for  Portuguese  posses- 
sions in  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil.  Not  widely  dif- 
ferent are  the  tales  told  of  the  Jesuit  mission  at  Sofala, 
not  far  from  Inhambane.  In  seven  weeks  after  the 
arrival  of  the  priests  in  1560  the  whole  court  had  become 
subjects  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven.  Slaves  and  others 
were  baptized,  the  Fathers  presenting  them  with  calico 
and  beads  if  they  would  submit  to  the  rite.  The  Dutch 
were  at  Cape  Town  in  1652.  Their  East  India  Com- 
pany's charter  made  mention  of  the  duty  of  instructing 
the  children  of  the  natives.  Some  governors  made 
earnest  with  the  injunction.  The  lives  of  many  in  the 
settlement  were  but  poor  illustration  of  the  spirit  of 
the  gospel.  The  Company  presently  turned  against 
all  missionary  endeavor.  The  Afrikander  is  to  this 
day,  even  if  himself  devout,  very  harsh  in  his  treatment 
of  the  black.  The  Moravians  late  in  the  eighteenth 
century  came  to  Cape  Colony  to  take  up  the  work 
for  which  the  Dutch  establishment  had  shown  no 
particular  aptitude. 

204.  British  effort;  African  colonization. — A  Cam- 
bridge University  magnate,  dean  of  Christ  College, 
Thomas  Thompson,  resigned  his  office  in  1744  to  under- 
take missionary  work  in  New  Jersey.  Five  years  later 
he  volunteered  under  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 


AFRICA 


255 


to  go  to  West  Africa  if  the  Society  would  support  him 
out  of  its  " Negro  Conversion  Fund."  Thompson,  on 
his  return  to  England  in  1772,  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  The  African  Trade  for  Negro  Slaves  Shown  to 
Be  Consistent  with  the  Principles  of  Humanity  and  with 
the  Laws  of  Revealed  Religion.  It  is  evident  that  some 
in  England  were  beginning  even  then  to  doubt  these 
high-sounding  propositions.  Sierra  Leone  was  bought 
by  the  African  Company  in  1790  and  turned  over  to 
the  British  government  in  1808  in  order  to  form  a 
settlement  for  negro  soldiers  who  had  fought  on  the 
side  of  Great  Britain  in  the  war  for  American  independ- 
ence and  also  for  African  slaves  in  British  possessions 
who  had  been  manumitted  by  their  masters  before 
slavery  was  abolished  by  act  of  Parliament.  Method- 
ism had  been  introduced  into  this  colony  by  negroes 
who  had  been  converted  in  Nova  Scotia.  Hardly  less 
significant  are  the  facts  concerning  Liberia.  The 
colony  originated  in  an  effort  made  by  the  American 
Colonization  Society,  which  had  been  formed  in  181 7 
to  transfer  freed  American  negroes  to  West  Africa. 
The  total  number  of  freedmen  who  came  from  America 
was  about  twenty  thousand,  all  of  whom  were  nomin- 
ally Christian.  Liberia  was  in  1847  declared  an  inde- 
pendent state.  From  a  political  and  social  standpoint 
little  progress  has  been  since  achieved.  The  Liberians 
have  endeavored  to  keep  alive  their  Christianity  and 
even  to  prosecute  missionary  work  among  the  neigh- 
boring tribes.  In  this  they  have  been  aided  by  admi- 
rable work  of  the  mission  of  the  American  Presbyterians, 
which  has  tactfully  furnished  to  Liberian  religious 
institutions  the  guidance  which  a  longer  tutelage  under 


256  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

the  American  republic  might  have  given  to  their  civil 
life.  Robert  Moffat,  who  was  sent  out  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society  to  Namaqualand  in  181 8,  really 
inaugurated  the  modern  era  in  African  missions.  In 
182 1  he  went  to  Bechuanaland.  In  1829  his  first  six 
converts  were  baptized.  In  1837  he  visited  England 
to  arrange  for  the  printing  of  his  Bechuana  version  of 
the  New  Testament.  By  1857  he  had  completed  the 
translation  of  the  whole  Bible.  His  description  of  his 
mission  work  is  still  a  classic.  It  might  have  been 
written  yesterday  as  a  program  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened missionary  endeavor.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
picture  of  extraordinary  vividness  and  insight  of  the 
Africa  which  has  forever  passed  away.  It  was  with 
Moffat  that  Livingstone  spent  his  first  years  in  Africa. 
It  was  Moffat's  daughter  whom  Livingstone  married. 
She  died  early,  but  Moffat  lived  until  1883,  surviving 
his  illustrious  son-in-law  by  ten  years  and  having  seen 
many  of  the  changes  which  have  made  the  Africa  that 
is  to  be.  He  was  not  a  man  of  Livingstone's  range  of 
ability  but  was  incomparable  as  a  pioneer  missionary. 

205.  Exploration  and  discovery. — Before  this  pre- 
liminary stage  in  the  history  of  African  missions  was 
over  the  era  of  exploration  and  discovery  had  begun. 
Portuguese  power  on  the  coast  of  Africa  waned  fast 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Dutch  were  at 
Table  Bay  in  1652,  while  the  English  were  content  to 
take  Saint  Helena  as  their  halfway  house  on  the  road 
to  the  farther  East.  The  French  used  Madagascar  for 
the  same  purpose.  Cape  Town  was  hardly  more  than 
a  westerly  outpost  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The 
colonists,   freed  from  any  apprehension  of  European 


AFRICA  257 

trouble  and  leavened  by  Huguenot  blood,  gradually 
spread  northward,  stamping  their  language,  law,  and 
religion  indelibly  on  South  Africa.  There  is  as  good 
as  no  history  of  Africa  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
except  the  sinister  history  of  the  slave  trade.  The 
European  nations  were  struggling  for  supremacy  in 
Asia  and  America,  not  as  yet  in  Africa.  Commerce 
in  gold,  ivory,  and  spices  was  valuable,  but  the  slave 
trade  was  more  valuable  than  all  other  trades  together. 
As  the  century  drew  to  its  close  men's  minds  turned 
against  the  slave  trade  and  there  was  a  notable 
awakening  of  interest  in  Africa.  A  society,  the  African 
Association,  was  formed  in  London  in  1788  for  the 
exploration  of  the  interior  of  the  continent.  This 
association  was  in  1831  merged  in  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society.  Bruce  had  in  the  years  1770  to 
1772  passed  through  Abyssinia  and  Sennar  and  de- 
termined the  course  of  the  Blue  Nile.  The  Niger 
was  first  reached  in  1795  by  Mungo  Park,  who  traveled 
by  the  way  of  Gambia.  He  failed  to  solve  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  first  recorded 
crossing  of  Africa  was  accomplished  between  1802  and 
181 1  by  two  Portuguese  half-caste  traders,  Baptista 
and  Jose,  who  passed  from  Angola  eastward  to  the 
Zambesi.  In  the  Napoleonic  era  Europe  again  lost 
interest  in  Africa  or  at  least  concentrated  it  upon 
Egypt.  Before  the  end  of  that  era  England,  in  1807, 
had  declared  the  African  slave  trade  illegal  for  British 
subjects.  The  trade  was  abolished  by  all  other  Euro- 
pean powers  before  1836.  An  expedition  sent  in  1816 
to  ascend  the  Congo  was  unable  to  get  beyond  the 
rapids.     In  1823  Capperton  reached  Lake  Chad  from 


258  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Tripoli,  the  first  white  man  to  reach  that  inland  sea. 
In  1 84 1  a  disastrous  attempt  was  made  to  plant  a  white 
colony  on  the  lower  Niger.  Nevertheless,  British 
traders  soon  after  acquired  rights  in  the  delta  and 
annexed  Lagos  Island.  Zanzibar,  built  on  the  island 
of  that  name  by  Seyyid  Said  of  Muscat  in  1832,  rapidly 
gained  importance.  It  became  a  new  center  for  the 
Arab  slave  traders  who  now  began  to  penetrate  to  the 
great  lakes  of  East  Central  Africa. 

The  discovery  by  two  missionaries,  Rebmann  and 
Krapf,  in  1848-49,  of  the  mountains  of  Kilimanjaro 
stimulated  the  desire  of  Europe  for  further  knowledge. 
In  1849  Livingstone  crossed  the  Kalahari  Desert  from 
the  south  to  the  north  and  reached  Lake  Ngami.  Be- 
tween 185 1  and  1856  he  traversed  the  continent  from 
west  to  east,  making  known  the  great  waterways  of 
the  Zambesi.  While  Livingstone  circumnavigated  Ny- 
assa,  the  more  northerly  Lake  Tanganyika  had  been 
visited  by  Burton  and  Speke  and  the  latter  had  sighted 
Victoria  Nyanza.  Returning  to  East  Africa  with  Grant 
in  1862,  Speke  reached  the  river  which  flowed  from 
Nyanza  and  followed  it  down  to  Egypt.  He  had  the 
distinction  of  being  the  first  to  read  the  riddle  of  the 
Nile.  Between  1866  and  1873  Livingstone  practically 
disappeared  from  the  world.  Stanley,  sent  out  in  187 1 
by  James  Gordon  Bennett,  succeeded  in  finding  Living- 
stone. Later,  in  the  most  memorable  of  all  the  exploring 
expeditions,  striking  inland  to  the  Lulaba  and  follow- 
ing that  river  down  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Stanley 
proved  that  river  to  be  the  main  body  of  the  Congo. 
The  Sahara  and  the  Sudan  had  been  traversed  in  many 
directions,   between    i860   and    1875,   by   Rohlfs   and 


AFRICA 


259 


Schweinfurth  and  Nachtigal.  In  1872  Selous  began 
his  journeys  over  South  Central  Africa,  which  continued 
more  than  twenty  years  and  extended  over  every  part 
of  Mashonaland  and  Matabeleland.  Even  in  1865  the 
geographies  marked  vast  areas  in  the  interior  of  Africa 
as  " unknown."  By  1875  tnat  designation  had  dis- 
appeared and  the  race  of  the  powers  to  get  possession 
of  the  rich  territories  which  had  thus  been  revealed 
was  begun.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  that  the  Egyptians 
at  Dendera  and  Thebes,  the  keen  and  curious  Halli- 
carnassan  who  came  to  wonder  at  their  greatness, 
Romans  who  honored  Hadrian  within  the  temple  area 
at  Luxor,  Copts  who  built  Christian  churches  out  of 
stones  taken  from  memorials  of  them  all,  Arabs  in  the 
frenzy  of  their  conquering  passion,  from  Omar  to  the 
Mahdi,  all  had  lived  under  the  glowing  African  sun, 
but  the  Africa  which  lay  beyond  the  Cataracts  was  as 
much  unknown  to  them  as  if  it  had  been  on  some  far 
star.  Men  are  still  living  who  can  remember  a  time 
when  almost  all  the  great  African  discoveries  were 
made,  when  year  by  year  the  magazines  related  their 
wonders,  and  the  names  of  the  adventurers  who  had 
unveiled  the  mystery  were  like  household  words. 

206.  Livingstone. — Turning  to  the  history  of  mis- 
sions, the  characteristics  of  the  earlier  part  of  the 
modern  period  may  almost  be  summed  up  in  the  career 
of  David  Livingstone.  Livingstone  was  a  great  man. 
He  would  have  taken  a  place  in  the  life  of  the  world 
no  matter  what  career  he  had  chosen  or  where  his  lot 
had  been  cast.  Yet  many  others  who  worked  in  Africa 
before  the  turning-point  in  African  affairs  in  1875  did  in 
their  measure  the  same  sort  of  work.     David  Livingstone 


260  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

was  born  in  1813  at  Blantyre  in  Scotland,  of  the 
stock  which  has  so  largely  made  the  ministry  of  the 
Scottish  churches  what  it  has  been.  His  home  gave 
him  his  rectitude,  his  devoutness,  and  his  taste  for 
the  intellectual  life.  It  could  give  him  little  else.  At 
ten  years  of  age,  with  part  of  his  first  week's  wages  as 
a  "piecer  boy"  at  a  loom,  he  bought  a  Latin  grammar. 
He  studied  classics  and  botany  and  geology  in  the 
moments  that  he  could  save  from  work.  At  nineteen 
he  resolved  to  be  a  medical  missionary.  He  took 
courses  at  Glasgow  but  was  not  matriculated.  He 
picked  up  as  much  of  carpentry  and  other  trades  as 
possible.  After  his  acceptance  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1838  he  studied  theology,  medicine, 
and  science  for  two  years  in  London.  He  took  his 
medical  degree  at  Glasgow  and  sailed  for  Cape  Town 
in  1840,  joining  Moffat  at  Kuruman.  He  experienced 
the  bitterness  of  the  Boers  against  anyone  who  made 
the  rights  of  the  blacks  his  care.  His  little  family 
suffered  unceasingly  from  disease.  He  won  that  alle- 
giance from  the  natives  which  manifested  itself  through- 
out his  life.  Driven  from  place  to  place  by  every  mis- 
fortune he  built  up  his  stations  like  a  master  among 
men.  His  family  returned  to  England  for  a  period. 
Then  began  Livingstone's  career  as  explorer  and  dis- 
coverer. Wherever  he  went  his  fame  as  friend  and 
healer  went  before  him.  After  his  first  long  journey, 
which  ended  at  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  on  the  west  coast 
in  1853,  ne  sent  his  scientific  observations  to  Maclear, 
astronomer  at  the  Cape,  and  his  account  of  his  journey 
to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  which  awarded  him 
its  highest  honors.     Maclear  wrote:    "You  could  go 


AFRICA  261 

to  any  point  across  the  entire  continent  along  Living- 
stone's track  and  be  sure  of  your  positions."  He  reached 
Quilimane  on  the  Indian  Ocean  in  May,  1856,  four 
years  after  his  departure  from  Cape  Town,  having 
traveled  eleven  thousand  miles  on  foot  through  a  wil- 
derness never  before  traversed  by  civilized  man.  Few 
men  have  ever  received  greater  honors  than  were 
accorded  to  Livingstone  on  his  return  to  Great  Britain 
in  1 85  7.  It  was  on  this  journey  that  the  atrocities  of 
the  interior  slave  trade  had  so  revealed  themselves  to 
him,  and  the  obstacle  which  that  trade  presented  to 
all  religious  or  civilizing  work  in  Central  Africa  had  so 
impressed  itself  upon  him  that  the  question  of  its  sup- 
pression " became  the  uppermost  idea  in  his  mind." 
He  wrote:  "I  view  the  geographical  exploration  as 
the  beginning  of  the  missionary  enterprise.  I  include 
in  the  latter  term  everything  in  the  way  of  effort  for 
the  amelioration  of  our  race." 

He  severed  his  connection  with  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1858  and  returned  to  Africa  deter- 
mined to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  slave  trade  by 
every  means  in  his  power.  He  began  to  write  the 
books  which  made  him  famous.  How  he  found  it 
possible  to  continue  authorship  in  the  conditions  of  his 
existence  remains  a  mystery.  When  urged  by  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison  to  relinquish  missionary  work  and 
attend  only  to  discovery  he  repeated  the  old  reply: 
"I  would  not  consent  to  go  simply  as  a  geographer 
but  as  a  missionary  and  to  do  geography  by  the  way." 
He  had  appointment  from  the  British  consul  at  Zan- 
zibar in  1864  to  go  into  the  basin  of  the  great  lakes, 
a  region  of  marvelous  fertility  but  almost  depopulated 


262  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

by  the  slave  raiders.  Already  long  a  victim  of  fever 
and  dysentery,  he  experienced  here  one  of  the  few 
cases  of  treachery  on  the  part  of  the  natives  which  he 
ever  met.  The  record  of  those  seven  years  until  Stanley 
found  him  in  187 1  is  a  record  of  such  suffering  and 
achievement  as  falls  to  the  lot  of  few  men.  In  1873, 
at  Bangweolo,  still  scorning  any  other  issue  of  life  than 
to  be  overtaken  by  death  while  at  his  work,  he  was  found 
kneeling  at  his  bed.  He  had  died  communing  with  the 
God  who,  save  for  his  devoted  negroes,  had  been  his 
only  companion  for  the  most  of  a  long  and  incredibly 
arduous  life.  His  men  embalmed  his  body  as  they 
could  and  carried  it  with  his  papers  and  instruments 
on  their  shoulders  a  year's  journey  to  Zanzibar.  Two 
of  these  faithful  negroes  who  never  before  had  passed 
beyond  the  wilderness  stood  by  when  their  master  was 
buried  in  the  nave  of  Westminster  Abbey,  mourned  by 
his  nation  and  honored  by  a  world.  It  was  they  who, 
when  someone  had  raised  a  question  as  to  the  identity 
of  the  wasted  corpse,  suggested  that  his  family  identify 
the  scars  in  his  arm  made  by  the  teeth  of  a  lion  thirty- 
three  years  before. 

207.  Uganda. — Only  typical  examples  can  be  taken 
for  the  brief  narrative  attempted  in  this  book.  Cer- 
tainly the  history  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society's 
work  in  Uganda  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
difficulties  and  also  of  the  high  success  which  have  at 
times  attended  work  in  Africa.  The  country  was  first 
visited  by  Stanley,  who  in  1875  sent  word  to  England 
that  the  king  Mtesa  was  anxious  to  have  missionaries 
enter  his  domain.  Stanley's  letter  was  intrusted  to  a 
Belgian  named  Bellefonds,  who  was  subsequently  mur- 


AFRICA  263 

dered  by  members  of  the  Bari  tribe.  When  his  body 
was  discovered  Stanley's  letter  was  found  in  the  leg 
of  his  boot.  It  was  forwarded  to  General  Gordon  at 
Khartoum.  It  was  published  in  England  and  within 
a  week  the  Church  Missionary  Society  had  taken  up 
the  challenge.  Within  two  years  of  their  departure 
from  England  two  of  the  original  party  of  eight  had 
been  massacred,  two  had  died  of  disease,  and  two  had 
been  invalided  home.  Mtesa,  at  the  time  when  Stanley 
talked  with  him,  had  declared  himself  a  Mussulman. 
He  greeted  the  Protestants  kindly  but  afterward  lent 
an  ear  to  French  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Little 
progress  was  made  in  the  Anglican  work  and  in  1885 
Mwanga,  Mtesa's  successor,  began  to  persecute  the 
Christians,  both  Anglicans  and  Roman  with  impartial- 
ity. Hannington,  who  had  been  appointed  bishop  of 
Uganda,  approaching  Mwanga's  country  by  a  route 
never  before  used,  was  murdered.  Shortly  thereafter 
many  native  Christians  were  tortured  and  burnt. 
Mackay,  a  Scotch  engineer  who  was  aiding  in  the  work, 
carried  the  little  community  through  its  time  of  trial. 
Many  lost  their  lives,  many  were  mutilated,  and  more 
still  banished.  Mackay  died  in  1890.  By  that  time 
the  crisis  was  past.  In  fact,  when  in  1888  Mwanga 
undertook  to  renew  the  persecutions  he  was  driven 
from  his  throne.  The  Mohammedans,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  anarchic  situation,  placed  Kalema,  a  son  of 
Mtesa,  on  the  throne  and  drove  the  Christians  from  the 
country.  Mwanga  by  the  aid  of  the  Christians  regained 
his  place.  He  appealed  to  England  for  protection 
against  the  Arabs  and  native  slave  traders.  General 
Lugard  became  his  adviser.     Ultimately  there  grew  out 


264  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

of  this  situation  the  Uganda  protectorate,  which  was 
constituted  in  1894.  The  little  kingdom  had  peace 
and  religious  toleration.  It  began  to  be  commercially 
important.  The  Christians  increased  by  thousands. 
Pilkington  was  the  main  missionary  figure  of  this  era. 
He  was  aware  of  the  danger  involved  in  the  phenome- 
nal growth  of  the  number  of  Christian  adherents  because 
of  the  favor  of  the  authorities.  In  1893  the  foundation 
of  a  self-supporting  Ugandan  church  was  laid.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  clarification  was  wrought  by  the  fact 
that  in  1897  Mwanga  had  another  of  his  temperamental 
relapses  and  undertook  to  throw  of!  the  protectorate. 
For  a  time  it  seemed  likely  that  he  would  succeed,  and 
the  real  Christians  were  separated  from  the  others. 
Ultimately  Mwanga  was  deposed  but  Pilkington  was 
murdered  in  the  disorders.  When  Bishop  Tucker 
arrived  in  Uganda  in  1890  the  number  of  baptized 
Christians  was  scarcely  two  hundred.  When  he  retired 
in  1 9 13  the  number  had  risen  to  ninety  thousand  and 
the  adherents  to  half  a  million.  The  total  population 
is  reckoned  at  about  four  million.  It  is  acknowledged 
that  they  belong  to  the  best  representatives  of  the 
Bantu  race.  In  the  Christian  community  there  are  as 
over  against  ninety-four  missionaries,  men  and  women, 
three  thousand  native  workers.  There  is  a  printing 
press,  a  hospital,  and  a  dispensary.  There  are  fifty 
thousand  boys  and  forty  thousand  girls  in  the  mission 
schools  where  a  generation  ago  few  men  and  no  women 
knew  a  letter  of  the  alphabet  or  had  an  alphabet  to 
know  a  letter  of.  Bishop  Tucker,  closing  his  years  as 
canon  of  Durham  Cathedral,  can  review  almost  the 
whole  movement.     He  writes:     " There   is   something 


AFRICA  265 

almost  pathetic  in  the  rushing  of  a  quick,  intelligent 
people  through  all  the  steps  of  civilization  within  the 
lifetime  of  a  single  generation.  No  people  and  cer- 
tainly no  African  people  could  stand  the  shock  of  such 
an  upheaval  without  serious  loss."  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic missions  have  also  had  extraordinary  success  among 
this  impressionable  people. 

208.  Nigeria;  Bishop  Crowther. — On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  continent  in  the  Lower  Valley  of  the  Niger 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  has  sought  for  two 
generations  to  carry  out  the  experiment  of  a  mission 
as  nearly  as  possible  upon  the  responsibility  of  the 
Africans  themselves.  The  endeavor  accords  so  fully 
with  the  modern  view  that  the  history  of  the  mission 
arouses  more  than  usual  interest.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  the  reasons  which  led  to  this  departure 
were  at  first  not  theoretical  but  practical.  The  climate 
was  such  that  in  those  days,  before  the  nature  and 
manner  of  propagation  of  the  fevers  had  been  discov- 
ered, it  had  come  to  be  a  maxim  that  no  white  man 
could  live  in  the  country  for  more  than  two  years. 
The  English  missions  had  entered  the  Yoruba  country 
in  1846.  The  Basel  Society  had  had  representatives 
on  the  Gold  Coast  since  1824  and  the  English- 
Wesleyans  since  1835,  but  the  sacrifice  of  life  had  been 
appalling.  When  Dr.  Schon  and  Samuel  Crowther  went 
up  the  river  in  1841  forty- two  white  men  out  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  died  within  two  months.  In  1843 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  ordained  Samuel  Crow- 
ther, who  had  been  a  slave,  and  commissioned  him  to 
open  a  Niger  mission  of  which  the  staff  was  to  be  com- 
posed of  Africans.     In  1864  Crowther  was  consecrated 


266  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

bishop  in  Canterbury  Cathedral.  He  remained  bishop 
of  the  Niger  until  his  death  in  189 1.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  the  experiment  proved  a  success.  Yet  the 
failure  proves  little  for  the  general  thesis,  because  only 
under  peculiar  circumstances  would  such  a  church  have 
been  thrown  upon  its  own  resources  at  so  early  a  stage 
of  its  development.  Crowther,  moreover,  seems  to  have 
been  indeed  a  humble  and  devout  man  of  purity  of 
character  but  not  a  leader  and  not  a  judge  of  men. 
The  Lower  Niger  people,  moreover,  are  of  far  less  firm- 
ness of  character  than  for  example  the  Hausas,  farther 
inland,  among  whom  at  present  great  progress  is  being 
made.  It  has  been  almost  a  maxim  that  the  people 
of  the  coast  regions,  so  long  the  prey  of  demoralizing 
contacts  with  the  whites  in  their  buying  of  slaves  and 
selling  of  rum,  are  pitiably  weak  and  grossly  immoral 
as  compared  with  the  tribes  of  the  interior.  Crowther's 
confidence  was  too  easily  bestowed  and  often  betrayed. 
He  showed  the  mental  arrest  which  has  often  been 
observed  in  men  struggling  up  out  of  barbarous  condi- 
tions. In  his  youth  he  was  deemed  exceptionally  ca- 
pable. In  his  maturity  he  made  no  progress.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  Crowther's  successor  was 
an  Englishman.  The  mission  has  gradually  recovered. 
Indeed  its  present  situation  is  far  from  unsatisfactory. 
Since  1890  the  extension  of  this  work  among  the  Hausas 
at  the  north  has  been  most  promising.  The  popula- 
tion here  was  almost  entirely  Mohammedan.  Medical 
work  first  gained  their  confidence.  The  Hausa  lan- 
guage is  the  means  of  communication  throughout  the 
western  Sudan.  The  men  travel  everywhere  as  traders. 
The  adoption  of  Christianity  by  any  larger  number  of 


AFRICA  267 

these  people  would  be  an  event  of  greater  significance 
than  the  growth  of  the  church  of  the  Niger  delta  is 
ever  likely  to  be.  The  government  schools  all  over 
Nigeria  are  upon  the  same  basis  with  those  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan.     There  are  many  Moslem  schools. 

209.  The  Congo. — In  the  area  which  after  Stanley's 
exploration  became  the  Congo  Free  State  missions  have 
been  largely  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The 
Belgian  Foreign  Missionary  Society  and  the  Order  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  are  those  most  largely  represented. 
Under  the  Leopoldine  terror  the  position  of  the  right- 
minded  among  the  missionaries  was  difficult.  Protes- 
tant missionaries  furnished  evidence  against  King 
Leopold  and  his  company.  Roman  Catholics  were 
apparently  expected  to  support  their  country.  One 
comes  upon  the  trace  of  this  corrupting  relation  of 
missions  and  colonial  advance  from  time  to  time  in 
many  different  places  and  by  no  means  always  in 
Roman  Catholic  colonies.  The  German  national  prop- 
aganda, so  new  and  vigorous  in  Africa  before  the  war, 
brought  forth  a  whole  literature  of  this  sort  which  is 
staggering  in  its  implications.  In  the  Congo  the  case  was 
so  bad  that  the  indignation  of  the  Belgian  people  finally 
based  itself  upon  the  testimony  of  their  own  priests. 
It  is  a  record  honorable  to  both  people  and  priests. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  can  hardly  be  surprising  that  the 
missions  found  it  hard,  after  what  the  tribes  had  ex- 
perienced, to  win  their  confidence  again.  Stanley's  call 
resulted  also  in  the  inauguration  of  Protestant  work  in 
the  Congo.  His  presentation  aroused  great  enthusiasm. 
No  one  dreamed  of  the  horrible  discrediting  of  Chris- 
tendom which  was  coming.     Small  as  is  the  Protestant 


268  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

church  in  Belgium,  it  established  a  mission  in  the 
Congo.  Various  English  and  American  societies  took 
part  in  the  movement,  some  of  them  lamentably  ill- 
fitted  for  the  task.  The  Congo  Inland  Mission,  so 
named  by  Grattan  Guinness,  had  little  fitness  for  the 
task  beyond  its  enthusiasm.  The  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union  endeavored  to  save  the  fragments. 
In  the  French  Congo  again  the  Roman  missions  have 
been  the  natural  instrumentality  of  evangelization. 
France  assumed  the  protectorate  in  1906  although 
French  influence  had  been  dominant  here  since  1841. 
The  total  number  of  Christians  connected  with  the 
missions  is  small.  The  French  Protestants  are  not 
numerous,  yet  the  Paris  Society  representing  the  old 
Huguenot  church  has  a  mission  here  to  which  the 
American  Presbyterians  handed  over  in  1906  the  work 
which  they  had  been  doing  for  two  generations  in  the 
Gabun.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  of  modern  New 
Testament  scholars,  Albert  Schweitzer,  author  of  The 
Quest  of  the  Historical  Jesus,  inaugurated  an  independ- 
ent mission  here  in  19 14. 

210.  South  Africa. — In  South  Africa  we  have  already 
touched  upon  the  work  of  Moffat  and  Livingstone. 
The  expansion  of  British  interests  since  the  Kaffir  wars 
and  more  particularly  since  the  Boer  War  made  it 
natural  that  the  Anglican  church  should  take  a  leading 
place  in  missionary  work  in  all  that  complex  of  terri- 
tories which  even  before  the  Great  War  were  amalga- 
mated into  one  vast  British  Empire  in  Africa.  The 
Union  of  South  Africa,  which  was  constituted  by  act  of 
Parliament  in  1909,  alone  combines  the  old  colonies  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Natal  with  the  former 


AFRICA  269 

Dutch  republics,  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free 
State.  To  these  one  must  add  Basutoland,  Bechuana- 
land,  Rhodesia,  and  Swaziland.  The  old  colonial  bishop- 
rics, with  the  missionary  bishoprics  added,  now  number 
ten.  They  are  varied  in  character.  Some  of  them 
minister  almost  exclusively  to  Africans.  The  foreign 
missionary  problem  is  in  the  way  of  becoming  to  a 
certain  extent  a  domestic  problem  of  the  Empire  of 
South  Africa,  just  as  the  now  vanishing  problem 
of  certain  North  American  Indians  became  the  problem 
of  Christians  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Yet  it 
will  be  long  before  the  connection  with  Britain  itself 
and  with  other  parts  of  the  world  in  which  missionary 
work  for  African  natives  began  will  altogether  cease. 
Certain  phases  of  missions,  as  for  example  medical  work, 
are  in  the  great  centers  of  population  no  longer  neces- 
sary. On  the  other  hand,  educational  work  is  almost 
as  necessary  as  ever  because  discrimination  against  the 
negro  is,  despite  all  efforts  of  the  government,  every- 
where to  be  reckoned  with.  The  problem  approximates 
more  and  more  to  the  problem  of  society  and  of  the 
churches  in  dealing  with  the  negro  in  the  southern 
states  of  the  American  Union.  All  the  phenomena 
which  we  meet  in  this  country  are  met  in  South  Africa 
and  others  besides.  The  freedom  of  the  negro,  not 
merely  his  deliverance  from  actual  slavery  but  the 
extension  to  him  of  privileges  which  the  Empire  since 
the  Boer  War  is  inclined  gradually  to  accord,  has  the 
same  effect  upon  some  of  the  negroes  in  South  Africa 
that  it  has  had  in  the  Black  Belt.  A  portion  of  the 
white  population  is  subject  to  the  same  guilty  preju- 
dices and  the  same  strange  oscillations  in  sentiment. 


270  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

It  is  extraordinarily  difficult  to  say  how  far  a  negro 
Christendom  is  being  developed  in  what  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  white  man's  Africa.  Statistics  are  not 
difficult  to  obtain,  but  statistics  are  the  least  part  of 
the  question.  Negroes  from  all  over  Africa  come  to  a 
great  city  like  Johannesburg,  but  the  number  of  negroes 
does  not  make  it  any  the  less  a  white  man's  town. 
The  negroes  have  broken  the  connections  which  they 
had  before  they  left  the  habitat  of  their  tribe.  It  is 
a  chance  if  they  have  formed  new  connections  of  any 
sort.  More  and  more  there  is  demand  for  leadership 
from  among  their  own  race  if  they  are  not  always  to 
remain  in  industrial  servitude.  More  and  more,  never- 
theless, education  and  indeed  the  gospel  must  assume 
the  task  of  making  the  tribesmen  industrially  fit.  It 
seems  as  if  one  war  against  slavery  in  Africa  had  been 
practically  ended  only  to  mark  the  beginning  of  another. 
One  problem  of  the  missionary  and  of  all  his  confreres 
was  to  bring  civilization  to  the  native  of  Africa.  The 
next  problem  is  to  protect  the  native  against  the 
civilization  which  has  been  brought. 

South  Africa  is  therefore  full  of  missionaries.  Their 
life  and  work  must  present  the  characteristics  of  those 
who  work  for  the  submerged  tenth  in  any  mining  or 
industrial  region  or  great  city  in  Christendom.  Only 
in  South  Africa  it  is  a  great  deal  more  than  a  tenth 
which  is  submerged  and  a  tenth  which  somehow  had  a 
right  not  to  be  submerged  in  a  civilization  in  which 
they  have  never  had  a  moment's  chance  to  ride  on  the 
crest  of  the  wave.  If  the  problem  of  missions  in 
Uganda  is  difficult  it  is  at  least  defined.  In  South 
Africa  almost  everywhere  it  is  more  difficult  because 


AFRICA  271 

it  is  indefinable.  Compared  with  the  vast  and  varied 
need  mission  instrumentalities  sink  into  insignificance, 
although  they  are  lavishly  sustained  by  the  Anglican 
church  and  almost  every  ecclesiastical  body  in  the 
British  Isles,  with  much  loyal  support  from  the  outside 
world.  There  are  some  senses  in  which  it  is  best  that 
the  boundaries  of  the  negro  problem  should  fade  away 
in  the  greater  problem  of  South  African  society  in  gen- 
eral and  that  the  negro  should  not  be  singled  out  as 
the  only  one  to  whom  missions  are  sent.  It  may  be 
that  Africa  will  never  be  really  Christianized  until  it 
is  Christianized  by  Africans.  Whether,  then,  the  Afri- 
can Christians  who  arise  out  of  the  un-Christian  welter 
in  South  Africa  will  be  the  most  efficient,  or  whether 
it  will  be  those  rather  whose  contacts,  like  those  of  the 
Ugandans  or  the  North  Nigerians,  have  been  as  yet 
relatively  purer,  or  whether  we  may  set  hope  in  some 
far  day  on  Africans  from  the  black  belt  in  America, 
from  Hampton  and  Tuskegee,  would  be  an  interesting 
question.  Africans  who  have  come  up  in  a  place  like 
Jamaica,  in  contact  with  the  purity  of  the  Moravian 
tradition  and  with  the  best  tutelage  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  churches,  have  certainly  furnished  the  most 
promising  material  thus  far. 

211.  Industrial  education;  Lovedale. — It  is  evident 
that  industrial  education  must  play  a  great  part  at 
present  in  African  missions.  It  is  likely  to  preponder- 
ate over  every  other  aspect  of  education  offered  by 
missions  and  indeed  of  that  offered  by  the  governments 
as  well.  Industrial  education  is,  however,  one  of  the 
newest  phases  of  education  to  attain  any  scientific 
development.     Institutions  like  Hampton  and  Tuskegee 


272  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

for  the  negroes  in  America  have  grown  up  mainly 
within  the  last  generation.  It  is  the  more  striking, 
therefore,  that  in  one  mission,  that  of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  at  Lovedale,  a  work  of  this  sort 
has  been  carried  on  for  a  much  longer  period.  It  has 
had  in  the  personality  and  career  of  Dr.  James  Stewart 
a  force  of  primary  significance.  The  Glasgow  Mission- 
ary Society  sent  out,  in  1820,  Rev.  W.  R.  Thompson, 
who  joined  a  representative  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  settled  in  Kaffraria.  They  founded  the  station 
at  Lovedale  in  1824.  From  the  first  the  training  of 
natives  in  crafts  and  trades  was  felt  to  be  fundamental 
in  any  effort  for  their  uplifting.  When  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  was  formed  in  1843  it  took  over  the  work 
of  the  Glasgow  Society.  After  185 1  the  Lovedale  schools 
received  government  grants  because  of  the  nature  of 
their  work.  Stewart  became  principal  in  1867,  the  very 
year  of  the  inauguration  of  Armstrong's  work  at  Hamp- 
ton in  Virginia.  He  continued  for  forty  years  at  the 
head  of  the  institution.  More  significant  even  than 
the  government  grants  have  been  the  substantial  fees 
which  the  students  have  been  able  to  pay  or  to  repay  for 
their  instruction.  Pupils  come  from  practically  every 
tribe  in  South  Africa  and  Rhodesia  and  from  missions  of 
many  different  denominations.  So  attractive  are  the  op- 
portunities that  Europeans  have  sought  admission  to  the 
school.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  because  the  cleft 
between  the  whites  and  the  African  laborer  is  very  deep. 
Employers  even  refuse  to  hire  white  laborers  because  of 
the  difficulties  which  arise.  Everything  tends  to  keep 
the  black  in  his  position  as  laborer  in  a  measure  that 
constitutes  one  of  the  grave  problems  of  the  future. 


AFRICA  273 

212.  The  French  in  South  Africa  and  Madagascar. — 
One  striking  piece  of  work  in  South  Africa  deserves 
still  to  be  mentioned.  It  is  that  of  the  Paris  Evangel- 
ical Missionary  Soceity  among  the  Hottentots  at  Well- 
ington and  at  Kuruman.  The  French  Protestants 
entered  upon  this  work  in  1829.  By  1850  eleven  sta- 
tions had  been  occupied  among  the  Basutos.  In  1858 
Francois  Coillard  joined  the  staff  of  this  mission,  one 
of  the  most  devoted  and  successful  of  all  who  have 
worked  in  South  Africa.  Despite  frequent  interrup- 
tions of  the  work  in  the  course  of  the  wars  between 
the  Basutos  and  the  Boers  the  mission  made  progress. 
In  1884  a  number  of  Christians  from  Basutoland  estab- 
lished a  mission  among  the  Barotsi  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Zambesi.  Coillard  was  the  leader  of  this  move- 
ment. So  degraded  were  the  Barotsi  that  Coillard 
declared  that  it  took  twenty  years  of  labor  to  bring  the 
Barotsi  up  to  the  level  which  the  Basutos  occupied 
when  the  French  arrived.  Coillard,  who  died  in  1904, 
most  solemnly  bequeathed  this  work  to  the  churches 
of  France. 

Mention  of  this  society  leads  us  to  speak  in  this 
place  of  Madagascar.  Protestant  missionary  work  had 
begun  in  the  island  as  early  as  18 18  under  the  London 
Missionary  Society.  It  was  prosecuted  after  1862  with 
some  success  by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel.  French  priests  accompanied  the  French  gov- 
ernment expedition  to  Madagascar  in  1845.  After  1861 
the  Roman  Catholic  mission  was  established  in  Tama- 
tave.  A  protectorate  of  France  over  Madagascar  was 
recognized  by  Great  Britain  in  1890  and  the  island 
became   a   French   possession   in    1896.     The    French 


274  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

Protestants  entered  in  that  year.  In  view  of  that  event 
the  two  English  societies  asked  the  Paris  Missionary 
Society  to  take  over  their  work.  The  government 
required  that  all  scholars  in  the  mission  schools  should 
be  taught  in  French.  Preaching,  when  not  in  the 
vernacular,  was  to  be  in  French.  The  Huguenot  church 
in  France  was  of  limited  resource.  Unless  help  were 
at  hand  from  Great  Britain  and  America  it  could  not 
prosecute  the  work.  The  Madagascar  church  had  en- 
dured persecutions  comparable  with  those  of  the  Jap- 
anese Christians  in  the  seventeenth  or  of  the  Koreans 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  native  government 
had  been  fiercely  hostile  to  Christians.  The  French 
authority  which  succeeded  it  was  more  than  indifferent. 
213.  German  missions. — Allusion  has  been  made  to 
various  German  societies  which  have  worked  in  parts 
of  Africa.  The  missions  of  the  Moravians  are  always 
to  be  spoken  of  with  reverence.  The  Basel  mission, 
Swiss  indeed  in  origin  but  which  has  always  had  sup- 
porters in  Germany,  began  in  1824  a  work  among  the 
Tanti.  The  best  known  of  its  missionaries,  Christaller, 
gave  himself  to  Bible  translation.  The  mission  now 
extends  from  Ashanti  to  the  river  Volta.  It  has  organ- 
ized industrial  work  upon  a  considerable  scale,  being 
aided  by  a  special  missionary  trading  society.  In  this 
it  has  followed  the  Moravians,  who  have  often  bene- 
fited their  adherents  and  aided  in  the  support  of 
their  work  by  entering  into  commercial  relations  sus- 
taining co-operative  stores.  The  North  German  Mis- 
sion, often  called  the  Bremen  Society,  inaugurated  work 
among  the  Evhe  people  in  1847.  It  was,  however,  a 
work  of  very  limited  extent  until  the  Germans  took 


AFRICA  275 

• 

over  Togoland  as  a  colony  in  1894.  This  was  a  tiny 
colony  between  the  British  Gold  Coast  and  French 
Dahomey.  In  it,  however,  vigorous  work  has  been 
done  by  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  missions. 
Similarly,  the  Basel  mission  and  the  Gossner  Mission 
have  had  measurably  successful  work  in  the  Kamerun. 
The  English  Baptists  had  begun  here  in  1845  a  work 
which  the  Basel  mission  took  over  in  1884,  when  the 
German  Empire  acquired  possession  of  the  colony.  The 
Germans  had  demanded  that  the  work  be  conducted 
by  German-speaking  missionaries,  if  possible  by  those 
of  German  birth.  This  demand  was  general  in  the 
German  colonial  possessions  throughout  the  world.  By 
far  the  most  significant  territory  in  the  west  belonging 
to  this  government  before  the  war  was  German  South- 
west Africa.  Its  population  is  partly  Bantu  and  partly 
Hottentot.  The  colony  was  the  only  possession  of 
Germany  in  Africa  of  which  the  climate  is  suitable  for 
white  men.  It  came  into  German  possession  in  1884, 
but  they  fought  a  bitter  war  with  the  Hereros  in  1904-7 
which  cost  the  lives  of  almost  half  the  Herero  people. 
In  German  East  Africa,  as  it  was  before  the  war,  there 
was  a  numerous  population,  ten  million  according  to  the 
current  estimate.  The  Anglican  Universities  mission 
to  Central  Africa  and  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
had  been  in  the  field  long  before  the  German  occu- 
pation. Before  the  Great  War  their  work  had  been 
much  reduced.  On  the  other  hand,  since  1890  the 
Bielefeld  Mission,  the  Berlin  Society,  and  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Mission  of  Leipzig  have  greatly 
enlarged  their  work.  Three  Roman  Catholic  societies 
were  also  in  the  colony  at  the  outbreak  of  the  wai. 


276  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

The  future  of  the  German  missions  is  closely  involved 
with  the  question  of  the  fate  of  the  German  colonies 
in  Africa  after  the  war.  No  people  have  found  it  so 
difficult  to  work  under  any  flag  but  their  own,  or, 
rather,  have  felt  that  it  was  so  necessary  that  their  flag 
should  come  to  the  aid  of  their  mission  work — again 
excepting  the  Moravians. 

214.  The  partition  of  Africa. — After  1875  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa  became  the  theater  of  the  expansion  of 
Europe.  Lines  of  partition  drawn  often  through  track- 
less wilderness  marked  out  the  possessions  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  other  powers.  Rail- 
ways penetrated  the  interior.  Vast  areas  were  opened 
up  to  civilized  occupation.  Until  1875  the  only  powers 
in  any  way  interested  in  African  possessions  were  Great 
Britain,  Portugal,  and  France.  Their  possessions  cov- 
ered, however,  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  continent, 
and  Great  Britain  at  least  had  been  positively  averse 
to  the  enlargement  of  her  possessions.  Germany, 
strong  and  united  as  the  result  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  was  seeking  new  outlets  for  her  energies,  new 
markets  for  her  growing  industries,  new  sources  of  raw 
materials.  Yet  the  idea  of  colonial  expansion  was  of 
slow  growth  in  imperial  Germany.  When  Bismarck 
finally  acted  in  the  middle  of  the  decade  of  the  eighties, 
Africa  was  practically  the  only  open  field.  France  also 
after  the  war  of  1870  felt  the  need  of  new  territories 
to  aid  her  in  an  industrial  expansion  by  which  she  was 
to  make  good  the  losses  suffered  in  the  war.  The 
entrance  of  Belgium  as  a  new  competitor  in  the  area  of 
colonial  expansion  after  the  revelations  of  Stanley  con- 
cerning the  Congo  precipitated  the  general  rivalry  which 


AFRICA  277 

has  not  yet  seen  its  end.  Portugal  naturally  desired 
to  retain  as  much  as  possible  of  her  nominal  empire 
inherited  from  the  old  days  of  vigorous  trade.  She  is, 
however,  poor  in  men  and  money.  Great  Britain,  once 
she  was  aroused  to  the  reality  of  competition  in  an 
area  where  she  had  been  thus  far  without  a  serious 
rival,  was  prepared  to  put  forth  vigorous  effort  in  the 
south  and  west.  The  great  dream  which  took  posses- 
sion of  her  imagination  was  to  establish  an  unbroken 
line  of  British  possessions  or  spheres  of  influence  from 
the  Cape  to  Cairo.  French  ambitions,  apart  from 
Madagascar,  had  been  confined  to  the  northern  and 
central  portions  of  the  continent.  Now  they  aspired 
to  establish  a  belt  of  territory  stretching  across  the 
continent  from  Senegal  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Great 
Britain,  through  the  campaigns  by  which  she  won  and 
held  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  defeated  this  hope  of  France. 
German  East  Africa,  extending  as  it  does  from  the 
Zanzibar  Channel  to  the  Congo,  defeated,  or  at  all 
events  postponed,  the  corresponding  ambition  of  the 
British.  King  Leopold's  ambitions  have  been  already 
indicated.  At  first  he  sought  through  the  establish- 
ment of  an  International  African  Association,  whose 
center  was  at  Brussels,  to  put  the  exploitation  of  Africa 
upon  an  international  footing.  It  was  not  until  1885 
and  after  years  in  which  the  powers,  particularly  Bel- 
gium and  France,  had  come  uncomfortably  near  to 
conflict  one  with  another,  that  the  king  formally 
assumed  the  headship  of  the  new  Congo  State.  A 
Bremen  merchant  purchased  from  a  native  chief  a 
considerable  concession  near  Liideritzbucht  in  South- 
west Africa.     The   German  government  assumed   the 


278  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

protection  of  its  own  subjects  within  that  area.  Com- 
mercial companies  began  to  be  formed  in  Germany  for 
African  trade.  The  mind  of  the  nation  changed  swiftly. 
The  German  flag  was  raised  in  1884  on  the  coast  oppo- 
site Zanzibar  and  a  beginning  made  of  the  colony  of 
German  East  Africa,  which  proved,  in  the  Great  War, 
the  most  defensible  of  the  German  possessions  in 
Africa.  For  while  the  attention  of  the  world  has  been 
centered  on  the  western  front,  on  the  Russian  line,  on 
the  Dardanelles,  or  in  Siberia,  Great  Britain,  Belgium, 
Portugal,  and  France  have  fought  with  Germany  for 
the  future  in  Africa. 

215.  The  outlook. — It  has  seemed  necessary  to  write 
these  few  lines  concerning  the  partitionment  of  Africa 
in  order  to  intimate  the  nature  of  that  phase  of  the 
development  of  the  continent  which  followed  upon  the 
period  of  exploration  and  discovery.  There  has  been 
exploration  since  1875,  some  of  it  of  a  very  avid  sort. 
There  have  been  discoveries  of  materials  and  commod- 
ities of  incalculable  value,  like  those  in  the  Rand.  It 
has  all  been  in  the  service  of  the  colonial  expansion  of 
competing  European  powers.  The  characteristic  of  the 
history  of  these  forty  years  has  been  the  effort  at  the 
establishment  of  overseas  empires  to  be  added,  as  in 
the  case  of  England,  to  vast  territories  already  possessed 
or,  as  in  the  case  of  Belgium  and  Germany  and  Italy,  to 
correspond  to  a  new  significance,  political  or  industrial, 
which  these  nations  had  acquired  within  these  years. 
If  missions  in  Africa  were  affected  by  the  era  of  dis- 
covery, the  fifty  years  prior  to  1875,  they  have  been 
far  more  profoundly  influenced  by  the  era  of  European 
expansion  and  African  partitionment  which  followed. 


AFRICA  270 

In  India,  China,  or  Japan  the  secular  movement  of 
conquest  and  trade  preceded  the  era  of  philanthropy 
and  religious  propaganda.  In  large  parts  of  Africa  the 
reverse  was  the  case.  Africa  was  opened  after  the 
humanitarian  and  religious  revival  in  Europe  and 
America.  The  opening  of  the  continent  was  in  no 
small  part  achieved  by  missionaries  like  Livingstone, 
who,  traversing  its  wilds,  were  able  to  say  as  truly  as 
Paul  ever  said,  "I  seek  not  yours  but  you/'  General 
Gordon  was  a  knightly  character,  but  he  was  a  trial 
to  soldiers  and  statesmen.  He  was  right,  however,  that 
it  was  a  high  enterprise  to  rescue  the  Sudan  from  the 
Mahdi  and  the  Khalifa  and  establish  a  base  from  which 
the  war  upon  the  slave  trade  could  be  prosecuted. 
Stanley's  letters  and  books  breathed  the  spirit  of  con- 
secration to  the  best  interest  of  the  peoples  of  the 
Congo.  They  were  read  the  world  over.  The  life  and 
death  of  Livingstone  had  given  to  Stanley's  appeal 
something  of  the  glamor  which  Gordon's  fate  achieved 
for  the  other  region  spoken  of.  The  early  conferences 
concerning  the  Congo  were  inspired  by  high  idealism. 
It  was  the  African  race  which  was  to  be  benefited. 
These  things  are  true  despite  the  fact  that  the  Leo- 
poldine  debauch  in  the  Congo  presented,  before  many 
years  elapsed,  a  revolting  contrast  to  these  hopes.  On 
the  other  hand,  missions  have  been  conducted  now  for 
many  years  in  Africa  against  a  background  of  wars  of 
various  powers  upon  the  natives.  They  have  been  con- 
ducted against  the  background  of  intrigue  and  bad 
relations  among  the  European  powers  themselves  which 
could  not  be  concealed  from  the  natives.  Missions 
are   now  being   conducted  and  must  in  the  future  be 


280  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

conducted  against  the  background  of  a  war  the  most 
pitiless  which  the  human  race  has  suffered,  character- 
ized at  times  by  a  barbarity  of  which  the  darkest  of  the 
denizens  of  the  Dark  Continent  were  not  civilized 
enough  to  dream.  Even  before  the  war  the  industrial 
warfare  which  peace  had  become  was  felt  in  all  its 
rigor  in  many  parts  of  Africa.  By  none  was  it  felt 
with  greater  severity  than  by  the  Africans  who  were 
everywhere  the  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water 
in  this  new  industrial  crisis  which  had  descended  in 
one  generation  upon  a  continent  undisturbed  since  time 
began. 

Few  would  feel  that  because  these  things  are  so  the 
African  should  have  been  left  for  ages  to  come  exactly 
as  he  has  been  in  ages  past.  Few  would  allege  that 
the  best  that  the  races  of  high  civilization  could  do  for 
the  African  would  be  to  let  him  alone.  Few  would 
hold  that  the  immeasurable  riches  of  such  a  continent 
as  Africa,  of  which  the  Africans  have  made  such  limited 
use,  are  not  for  the  benefit  of  all  mankind  when  the 
race  as  a  whole  comes  to  need  them.  It  is  easy  to  wax 
eloquent  about  the  wrongs  which  have  always  charac- 
terized the  spread  of  the  white  man's  civilization.  There 
is  superabundant  material  at  hand  for  those  who  would 
speak  to  this  theme.  It  is  not  so  easy  soberly  to  main- 
tain the  thesis  that  it  would  have  been  better  if  it  had 
never  spread.  With  all  of  its  monstrous  evils,  what 
we  call  civilization  contains  goods  as  well.  These  goods 
have  been  evolved  by  the  sweat  and  blood  of  ages  for 
the  benefit  not  of  one  continent  alone  but  for  the 
advantage  of  all  mankind.  It  is  these  goods  for  which 
the  healer,   the   educator,   the   missionary   of   religion 


AFRICA  281 

stands.  It  is  these  which  he  proposes  to  give  to  the 
African  along  with  all  else  that  is  given  and  in  place 
of  all  that  is  taken  away.  This  is  the  warrant  of 
missions.  The  old  paganism  which  has  passed  for  reli- 
gion in  Africa,  the  horrible  superstition  and  fear,  can- 
not live  with  the  new  civilization  which  is  spreading 
over  Africa,  trifling  as  any  deeper  achievements  of  that 
civilization  for  the  African  himself  have  yet  been.  No 
one  can  wonder  at  the  appeal  which  Islam  makes  to 
him.  If  we  think  that  Christianity  should  appeal  to 
him  still  more,  it  is  for  us  to  bring  Christianity  to  him. 
The  gospel  which  has  been  the  refuge  of  the  poor  and 
oppressed  should  have  something  to  say  to  the  African, 
although  we  should  be  the  last  to  lay  unction  to  our 
souls — we  have  had  so  much  to  do  with  his  poverty 
and  his  oppression.  The  gospel  which  has  had  so  much 
to  do  with  the  building  up  of  the  character  of  the  great 
races  should  have  something  to  do  for  his  race.  It  will 
apparently  be  a  long  time  before  he  can  be  a  citizen 
of  this  world  on  an  equal  footing  with  others  even  on 
his  own  continent.  There  is  the  more  reason  why  we 
should  give  ourselves  to  make  that  time  shorter.  There 
is  only  one  way  in  which  it  can  be  made  shorter — by 
the  development  of  the  character  and  intelligence  and 
opportunity  of  the  African. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS 

216.  The  coming  of  the  Spaniards 

217.  Organization  of  the  church;  Las  Casas 

218.  Mexico 

219.  South  America 

220.  Florida,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona 

221.  California 

222.  The  French  in  North  America 

223.  Height  of  the  French  power  and  beginning  of  its  decline 

224.  The  Jesuit  missions  to  the  North  American  Indians 

225.  Decline  of  the  Jesuit  missions 

226.  British  settlements  in  North  America 

227.  Early  missions  among  the  Indians;  John  Eliot 

228.  Literary  work;  societies 

229.  The  Moravian  missions 

230.  Government  relations;  nineteenth-century  missions 

231.  Australia 

232.  New  Zealand 

233.  Melanesia 

234.  Polynesia;  Society  and  Hervey  Islands;  Williams 

235.  The  Sandwich  Islands;  Hawaii 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS 

216.  The  coming  of  the  Spaniards. — The  tradition 
that  the  Christian  faith  reached  the  shores  of  North 
America  from  Iceland  and  Greenland  at  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century  is  of  uncertain  value.  Norse  missions,  if 
there  were  such,  left  no  trace.  Priests  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  and  inaugurated  mission 
work  among  the  natives  of  the  islands,  besides  caring  for 
the  religious  interests  of  the  adventurers.  The  papal 
bull  which  assigned  the  West  to  Spain  as  it  gave  the  East 
to  Portugal  contemplated  conquests  for  the  cross  and 
gains  for  the  church  as  well  as  increase  of  territory  and 
of  revenue  for  the  crowns  of  the  nations  concerned. 
There  is  unfortunately  no  doubt  as  to  the  violence  and 
perfidy  with  which  the  conquest  of  the  islands  and  later 
of  Mexico  and  Peru  was  carried  out.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  evidence  of  humane  and  devout  remon- 
strance on  behalf  of  the  helpless  peoples  as  well  as  of  the 
self-sacrifice  of  priests  and  members  of  the  orders  who 
sought  their  welfare. 

217.  Organization  of  the  church;  Las  Casas. — The 
Spanish  mission  work  was  at  first  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  see  of  Seville.  A  bishopric  of  Hispaniola  (San 
Domingo)  was  established  in  151 2.  There  was  a  bishop- 
ric at  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  1522  and  one  at  the  city  of 
Mexico  in  1530.  Shrines  of  the  Aztecs  were  turned  into 
places  of  Christian  ceremonial  in  the  very  moment  of 
conquest.     The  palace  of  the  Incas  was  given  by  Pizarro 

28< 


286  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

to  the  priests  who  accompanied  him  for  their  use  as  a 
church  while  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  capital  were  still 
smoking.  The  figure  of  Bartholomew  las  Casas  stands 
out  in  relief  against  a  dark  background.  He  was  born 
in  Seville  in  1474.  He  underwent  a  great  renewal  in 
religious  experience  when  already  embarked  on  his  life- 
work.  In  one  of  his  periods  of  distress  he  took  refuge 
in  a  Dominican  cloister  and  received  the  tonsure. 
Charles  V  held  him  in  profound  respect.  He  lived  to  the 
age  of  ninety-two  and  won  for  himself  the  title  of  Univer- 
sal Protector  of  the  Indians.  He  spent  his  long  life  in 
pioneering  and  again  in  administrative  work  in  his 
various  mission  fields.  He  made  fourteen  voyages  to 
Europe,  seeking  redress  for  the  evils  of  which  his  proteges 
were  made  the  victims  and  advocating  legislation,  both 
civil  and  ecclesiastical,  for  the  amelioration  of  their  lot. 
To  this  day  it  is  difficult  to  find  the  balance  between  the 
enthusiastic  praises  of  his  followers  and  the  calumnies 
and  misrepresentations  to  which  he  was  subjected. 
Historians  are,  however,  fairly  well  agreed  that  the 
charge  made  later,  that  it  was  he  who  in  his  effort  to 
mitigate  the  lot  of  his  Indians  introduced  African  slavery 
into  America,  is  not  well  founded. 

218.  Mexico. — Hernando  Cortes  sailing  from  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  in  15 18  founded  Vera  Cruz  and  made  it 
the  base  of  his  operations  for  the  conquest  of  the  empire 
of  Montezuma.  The  smallness  of  the  forces  at  his 
disposal  with  the  swift  success  which  he  achieved  shows 
how  slight  must  have  been  the  resistance  which  the 
Mexicans  were  able  to  offer.  Romance  has  gathered 
about  the  fall  of  the  Aztec  Empire.  It  has  made  of 
Cortes  first  a  hero  and  then  a  tyrant  of  unspeakable 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  287 

cruelty.  He  was  a  typical  adventurer  in  whom  many 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  came 
to  expression.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  he  organ- 
ized the  province  which  Charles  V  committed  to  him 
with  consummate  ability.  The  church  supplemented 
the  labors  of  the  conqueror.  The  first  Franciscan 
mission  arrived  in  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1524.  The 
University  of  Mexico  was  founded  in  1553.  It  is  thus 
nearly  eighty  years  older  than  Harvard.  The  Jesuits 
were  established  in  Mexico  in  1572,  devoting  themselves 
to  the  education  both  of  whites  and  of  natives.  The 
power  of  the  church  may  be  judged  from  a  petition  which 
was  sent  to  Philip  IV  in  1644  asking  him  to  forbid  the 
increase  of  the  religious  houses  which  already  held  half 
the  property  of  the  country,  to  suspend  ordinations 
because  there  were  six  thousand  unemployed  priests,  and 
to  suppress  feast  days  because  there  were  at  least  two 
every  week.  One  gets  the  impression  that  the  Indians 
were  an  economic  factor  of  importance  in  this  prosperity 
of  the  church  in  Mexico. 

219.  South  America. — The  example  of  Cortes  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  fired  the  ambition  of  Pizarro.  In 
1524  he  set  out  from  Panama.  Before  1535  he  had 
completed  the  conquest  of  Peru.  From  Peru  the 
Spaniards  extended  their  empire  into  Chile  before  1553. 
Thence  they  crossed  the  southern  Andes  into  the  great 
plains  which  form  the  interior  of  the  Argentine  Republic 
and  made  the  first  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Plata, 
Buenos  Aires,  in  1580.  Brazil,  on  the  other  hand,  after 
a  period  of  exploration  which  began  in  15 10,  was  finally 
settled  by  the  Portuguese.  The  Portuguese  settlement 
was  more  purely  colonial  than  any  Spanish  settlement  in 


288  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

South  America.  There  were  two  centers  of  government, 
one  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  one  at  Bahia.  There  was  in 
Spain  and  notably  in  Portugal  after  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  a  rational  and  liberal  movement 
which  showed  itself  in  the  attitude  of  both  these  countries, 
toward  the  Jesuits,  whose  charter  was  revoked  by  the 
pope  in  1773.  Paraguay  expelled  the  Jesuits  as  early 
as  1769.  When  the  settlements  in  Mexico  and  Central 
and  South  America  began  to  feel  the  contagion  of  the 
spirit  which  was  abroad  in  the  world  after  1789,  the 
monarchies  of  Spain  and  Portugal  were  disposed  to  make 
no  concessions,  although  neither  of  them  had  an  intel- 
ligible colonial  policy. 

It  was,  however,  the  subjection  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
to  Napoleon  after  the  Peninsular  War  which  emphasized 
to  the  South  American  colonies  the  necessity  of  caring  for 
their  own  interests.  The  struggle  for  independence 
lasted  from  1810  to  1826.  The  great  career  was  that 
of  Simon  Bolivar,  who  had  a  share  in  the  liberation  of 
Colombia  and  Peru,  of  Venezuela  and  Bolivia,  which  last 
bears  his  name.  Mexico  won  its  independence  in  1820, 
Peru  in  1822,  Brazil  in  the  same  year.  Mexico  and 
Brazil,  however,  retained  monarchical  forms  of  govern- 
ment, the  former  until  1867,  the  latter  until  1889.  All  of 
these  Latin- American  countries  have  lain,  however,  until 
very  recent  years,  to  one  side  of  the  great  stream  of  the 
economic  and  social  life  of  the  modern  world.  In  still 
greater  measure  are  they  retarded  in  their  religious 
development.  The  Congregationalists  and  Baptists  of 
the  United  States  have  missions  in  Mexico,  the  Presby- 
terians and  the  Southern  Methodists  in  Brazil.  The 
missionary  society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  289 

of  America  has  work  in  Brazil.  There  is  not  as  yet 
opportunity  to  co-operate  in  any  closer  way  with  the 
Roman  church.  Governments  have  frequently  been 
favorable  to  the  entrance  of  the  Protestants.  Indeed  in 
all  these  countries,  as  also  in  the  Philippines,  there  are 
considerable  elements  which  have  long  since  broken  with 
the  Roman  church  besides  those  who  never  had  any  such 
relation.  Closer  contacts  with  South  America  in  the 
immediate  future  will  assuredly  bring  expansion  of 
religious  work. 

220.  Florida,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona. — Ponce  de 
Leon's  letters  to  Charles  V  show  that  in  his  proposed 
settlements  in  Florida  he  had  in  mind  conquests  for  the 
cross.  Ayllon  carried  the  Spanish  arms  as  far  north  as 
the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  De  Soto  carried  the 
same  banner  westward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
It  was  not  until  1565  that  the  Spaniards  under  Menendez 
won  the  victory  over  the  French  near  St.  Augustine 
which  gave  them  permanent  possession  of  the  peninsula. 
From  this  settlement  went  out  missions  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Franciscans.  They  met  with  varying  suc- 
cess at  many  points  along  the  coast.  They  seem  never  to 
have  penetrated  far  inland.  One  hears  of  the  translation 
of  religious  books,  of  the  establishment  of  schools,  and 
of  the  effort  to  keep  out  the  white  settlers  because  their 
influence  was  unfavorable  to  the  work.  After  the 
peninsula  was  taken  away  from  Spain  and  accorded  to 
the  British  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  the  missions  declined. 
There  were  great  migrations  of  the  Indians  into  the 
interior  at  this  time.  In  1542  Mendoza,  the  viceroy  of 
New  Spain  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  sent  out  an  expedition 
into  what  is  now  the  state  of  New  Mexico  to  find  the 


2QO  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

great  and  rich  cities,  rumors  of  which  had  floated  to  the 
Spaniards.  Those  rumors  are  now  supposed  to  have 
referred  to  the  pueblos  of  the  Zuni  Indians.  Fame  had 
described  them  as  more  glorious  than  the  cities  of  the 
Orient.  Coronado  led  the  expedition.  Three  priests 
and  one  lay  brother  accompanied  him.  Coronado 
returned  to  Mexico  bitterly  disappointed.  Two  of  the 
priests  and  the  lay  brother  remained  behind  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  the  natives.  One  of  them  was  significantly 
named  John  of  the  Cross.  Nothing  more  was  ever  heard 
of  him  or  of  the  lay  brother.  In  1581  a  prosperous 
beginning  of  missionary  work  was  made  near  Albu- 
querque. By  1608  there  had  been  eight  thousand 
baptisms,  and  Santa  Fe  had  become  the  center  of  Spanish 
dominion  and  missionary  endeavor.  After  1650  the 
hostility  of  the  powerful  tribes  from  the  North  made 
itself  felt.  Many  converts  lapsed.  In  1680  there  was 
a  rebellion.  Churches  and  convents  were  burned.  The 
chief  medicine  man  who  had  led  the  rebellion  forbade 
the  naming  of  Jesus  and  demanded  that  baptismal  names 
be  dropped  and  the  estufas  be  opened  again  for  the  old 
ceremonies.  In  1700  Spanish  rule  was  re-established. 
But  the  missions  never  recovered  their  former  prosperity. 
221.  California. — Lower  California  seems  to  have 
been  visited  from  Mexico  as  early  as  1536.  In  1542 
Cabrillo  reached  the  site  of  Monterey.  In  1602  Viz- 
caino sailed  from  Acapulco  with  three  vessels,  seeking  a 
suitable  port  in  which  vessels  coming  from  the  Philip- 
pines might  refit.  He  discovered  San  Diego.  Carmelite 
friars  who  were  with  him  erected  a  chapel  on  the  shore. 
The  fleet  continued  its  voyage  to  the  north  as  far  as  Cape 
Mendocino.     Vizcaino,  however,  failed  to  find  the  harbor 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  291 

of  San  Francisco  and  despaired  of  reaching  the  waterway 
which  he  was  convinced  would  lead  him  back  by  the 
way  of  the  north  to  the  Atlantic.  In  1728  Vitus  Behring 
in  the  service  of  Russia  had  sailed  through  the  straits 
that  bear  his  name  and  proved  that  the  continent  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  was  separate  from  Asia.  In  1741 
he  reached  Alaska  and  claimed  for  Russia  a  portion  of 
America  of  unknown  size  and  wealth.  Orders  came 
from  Spain  to  Mexico  to  resume  the  efforts  at  exploration 
and  settlement  along  what  is  now  the  California  coast. 
The  military  leader  was  Jose  de  Galves.  With  him 
co-operated  Father  Junipero  Serra,  the  superior  of  the 
missions  in  lower  California,  who  presently  gave  up  his 
post  in  order  to  identify  himself  with  the  new  work.  The 
zeal  of  Father  Junipero,  who  from  1769  until  his  death 
in  1784  was  the  head  of  the  mission  affairs,  earned  for 
him  a  reputation  for  both  ability  and  saintliness.  The 
missions  were  dependent  on  military  protection.  They 
were  part  of  the  state  system  and  often  had  difficulties 
with  the  military  authorities  upon  questions  touching 
their  supplies.  At  the  same  time  they  were  obliged  to 
separate  themselves  from  the  garrisons  and  civil  popula- 
tion to  avoid  demoralization.  The  whole  discipline  of 
the  missions  tended  to  keep  the  Indians  children.  They 
were  indeed  practically  serfs  attached  to  the  soil.  Much 
good  was  done  but  little  independence  of  character 
developed.  The  three  most  northern  missions,  San  Juan 
Capistrano,  Santa  Clara,  and  San  Francisco,  were 
opened  in  1775  and  1777.  Serra  died  in  1784  and  the 
period  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  the  California 
missions  seems  to  have  ended  before  1813.  Most  of 
the  friars  returned  to  Mexico. 


292  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

222.  The  French  in  North  America. — It  was  the 
French  who  played  the  great  role  in  the  opening  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  North  American  continent,  although 
it  was  to  the  British  that  the  burden  and  glory  of  the 
development  of  that  continent  later  fell.  French 
explorers  and  adventurers  and  fur  traders  opened  the 
way  and  Jesuits  were  almost  everywhere  in  the  early 
period  responsible  for  the  missions.  John  Cabot,  when 
he  touched  Cape  Breton  Island  in  1497,  was  in  the 
service  of  the  English.  Breton  and  Norman  and  Basque 
fishermen  resorted  to  these  coasts  continually  after  Denis 
of  Honfleur  had  explored  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in 
1506.  It  was  Francis  I,  the  rival  in  so  many  other  ways 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V,  who  planned  to  give  France 
her  share  in  the  exploiting  of  the  transatlantic  world. 
Jacques  Cartier,  a  native  of  St.  Malo,  in  1534  ascended 
the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  Anticosti.  On  a  second 
voyage,  in  1535,  he  sailed  past  Quebec  and  reached  the 
great  Indian  village  of  Hochelaga,  behind  which  rose 
the  hill  which  ultimately  gave  name  to  Montreal.  A 
vigorous  climate,  a  savage  people,  a  soil  destitute  of  gold 
and  at  that  time  even  of  grain,  a  country  rich  only  in 
timber  and  fish  and  furs,  these  were  the  prospects  first 
held  out  to  the  adventurers.  Yet  the  Sieur  de  Roberval 
was  anxious  to  colonize  the  land.  Cartier  was  chosen 
for  the  task.  The  plan  failed  and  Cartier  returned  to 
France  in  1542.  In  the  king  patent  the  region  had 
been  called  "the  extremity  of  Asia  toward  the  West." 
Sixty  years  passed  and  the  wars  of  religion  in  France  had 
been  brought  to  an  end  by  Henry  IV  before  the  French 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  colony  in  the  New  World. 
Samuel  de  Champlain  made  his  first  voyage  in  1603. 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  293 

His  patron,  Pierre  du  Guast,  claimed  the  country  from 
Montreal  to  Philadelphia  and  named  it  Acadia.  The 
colony  winch  created  New  France  in  America  was 
destined,  however,  to  be  on  the  great  river.  It  was 
Champlain  who  laid  its  foundations  on  the  rocky 
eminence  of  Quebec  in  1608.  A  company  of  merchants 
held  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  and  Quebec  was  to  be 
the  point  of  departure  for  a  business  which  in  its  nature 
carried  its  representatives  into  the  wide  regions  of  the 
North  and  West  and  South.  In  1614  four  Recollect 
Fathers,  Franciscans,  came  to  New  France  to  minister  to 
the  settlers  and  to  inaugurate  a  mission  among  the 
Indians.  In  1625  the  first  Jesuits  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
Recollects.  Soldiers,  traders,  priests,  were  thus  the 
elements  of  the  population.  In  1644  Montreal  was 
founded  by  Maisonneuve. 

223.  Height  of  the  French  power  and  beginning  of  its 
decline. — Champlain  had  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Ottawa  and  crossed  thence  by  portage  and  the  French 
River  to  Lake  Huron,  whence  the  way  was  easy  to  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Superior  and  also  to  the  southern 
end  of  Lake  Michigan.  Not  far  from  either  of  these 
points  again  were  sources  of  streams  which  flowed  into 
the  Mississippi.  It  was  not  until  after  Frontenac  had 
beaten  the  Iroquois  that  the  other  route  by  way  of  Lake 
Ontario,  Lake  Erie,  and  Detroit  was  opened  and 
La  Salle  could  locate  his  continuous  line  of  posts  from 
the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  There  is 
scarcely  any  more  wonderful  story  of  adventure  than 
this  of  the  French  occupation  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  French  names  on  the  map  mark  what  was  once 


294  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

a  continuous  route  of  trading  posts  with  their  missions 
from  Cape  Race  to  New  Orleans.  Nicollet,  Radisson, 
Joliet,  and  Duluth  are  figures  never  to  be  forgotten. 
Pere  Marquette  and  Hennepin  were  not  behind  those 
others  in  adventurous  spirit  or  devotion.  Greatest 
of  all  was  La  Salle,  who  between  1676  and  1687  carried 
the  empire  of  France  from  the  headwaters  of  the 
Mississippi  to  the  Gulf.  The  history  of  the  decline  of 
the  French  power  in  America  is  almost  as  great  a  romance 
as  is  the  tale  of  its  acquisition.  Mistakes  had  been  made 
in  the  development  of  New  France.  There  was  far  less 
of  atrocious  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  French  toward  the 
natives  than  there  had  been  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards 
toward  the  aborigines  at  the  South.  But  the  hardier 
tribes  of  the  North  resented  more  fiercely  such  cruelty 
as  there  was.  There  never  had  been  outside  of  what  is 
now  the  province  of  Quebec  much  of  that  kind  of 
permanent  settlement  which  made  the  English  seaboard 
settlements  great.  Experience  proved  that  neither  upon 
conquest  like  that  of  the  Spaniards  nor  upon  wandering 
trade  like  that  of  the  French  can  an  empire  be  built. 
It  was  only  upon  the  transfer  of  families  and  social 
traditions,  upon  the  reproduction  of  essential  racial  and 
civil  institutions,  within  the  new  area  that  a  colonial 
empire  could  have  permanence.  The  decay  of  the 
Bourbon  monarchy,  the  preoccupation  of  the  bureau- 
cracy of  France  with  its  privileges  and  vices  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  left  New  France,  as  indeed  it  also 
left  the  French  empire  in  India,  without  the  support 
which  it  should  have  had.  Montcalm,  who  had  cried  in 
vain  for  help,  was  already  heartbroken  when  he  fell  on  the 
Plains  of  Abraham  in  1759.     New  France  fell  with  him. 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  295 

224.  The  Jesuit  missions  to  the  North  American 
Indians. — The  real  history  of  the  great  Jesuit  missions  in 
North  America  begins  after  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain  in 
1632.  The  most  famous  centers  were  that  on  Cape 
Breton  Island  for  the  Miami  Indians  and  that  at 
Tadousac  for  the  tribes  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence.  For 
the  mission  among  the  Algonquins,  Sillery  was  the  point 
of  departure.  The  Algonquins  were,  however,  almost 
exterminated  in  wars  with  the  hostile  tribes.  Beyond 
Montreal  was  the  mission  to  the  Nipissings  and  the 
great  Huron  mission,  the  scene  of  the  most  arduous  and 
continued  labors  of  the  Fathers  among  the  Wyandottes 
and  other  tribes.  Then  there  were  the  Ottawa  missions, 
which  represented  effort  to  Christianize  the  Chippeways 
and  the  Crees.  Farther  south  were  the  centers  for  the 
work  among  the  Miamis  and  the  Illinois.  At  Sillery 
was  made  one  of  the  most  patient  and  characteristic 
efforts  to  build  up  a  settled  Christian  community  of 
Indians.  The  precarious  mode  of  life,  the  rapid  diminu- 
tion of  game  when  the  whites  began  to  kill  the  animals  for 
their  furs,  the  diseases  of  the  white  man,  and  the  wars  of 
the  Iroquois  threatened  to  wipe  out  the  less  savage  tribes 
unless  a  new  order  of  existence  was  introduced.  The 
Indians  formed  a  sort  of  government,  the  Fathers  opened 
schools,  the  Ursuline  Sisters  opened  a  hospital.  The 
welfare  of  the  community  was  to  be  based  upon  agri- 
culture. Some  progress  was  made,  converts  like 
Negabamat  exerting  great  influence,  yet  the  work 
languished  after  a  few  years  and  disappeared  altogether 
after  1657.  Chaumonot  and  Dab  Ion  and  Le  Mague 
were  the  great  emissaries  to  whom  the  perilous  work 
among  the  Five  Nations  was  committed.     The  liquor 


296  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

which  was  sold  without  check  at  Albany  made  drunken- 
ness prevalent  among  the  Indians.  Degraded  men  thus 
became  tools  of  the  medicine  men  who,  clinging  to  the 
old  belief,  rallied  around  them  the  pagan  party.  The 
wars  of  the  English  upon  the  Iroquois  from  the  south  and 
of  the  French  from  the  north  completed  the  work,  and 
the  Iroquois  mission  was  abandoned  after  1708.  Yet 
Christian  Iroquois  were  later  found  both  at  Montreal 
and  in  Pennsylvania. 

225.  Decline  of  the  Jesuit  missions. — The  great  figures 
in  the  Ottawa  Mission  are  without  doubt  the  fathers 
Marquette  and  Hennepin.  Allouez  had  preceded  them, 
establishing  missions  on  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Superior  and  beginning  work  among  the  Sioux. 
Marquette,  setting  out  in  1673  from  Mackinac  with 
Louis  Joliet,  ascended  the  Fox  River  and  reaching  the 
Wisconsin  by  portage  thus  entered  the  Mississippi. 
This  river  they  descended  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas.  Returning  by  way  of  the  Illinois  River, 
Marquette  founded  a  mission  for  the  Kaskaskias  but  died 
before  he  could  reach  again  his  beloved  chapel  at  Macki- 
nac. Marquette  was  fully  as  much  explorer  and  ad- 
venturer as  priest,  yet  his  heart  was  ever  in  his  work 
for  the  red  man.  The  love  in  which  he  was  held  was 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  year  after  his  death,  in 
1675,  some  Ottawa  Indians  who  had  been  of  his  flock 
unearthed  his  bones  and  carried  them  to  Mackinac, 
where  they  buried  them  under  the  floor  of  his  little 
shrine.  Canada  fell  to  England  and  Louisiana  to  Spain 
after  1763.  Then  came  the  dissolution  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1773.  Before  the  restoration  of  the  Society  by 
Pius  VII  in  1 8 14  the  whole  face  of  America  had  changed. 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  297 

The  record  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  is  a  chapter  of 
American  history  full  of  personal  devotion.  None  can 
withhold  homage  from  men  like  those  whose  names  we 
have  mentioned.  Men  of  cultivation  and  often  of 
station  gave  up  all  that  civilized  life  can  offer  to  share  the 
precarious  life  of  wandering  savages.  Both  the  Spanish 
and  the  French  missions  failed  because,  although  in 
different  ways  and  for  different  reasons,  they  were 
unable  to  establish  stable  religious  communities  of  the 
natives  to  whose  representatives  in  due  time  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  could  be  passed  over.  Such  a  system  of 
religious  and  social  order,  if  it  could  have  been  achieved, 
might  have  saved  the  Indians  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valley  and  Upper  Canada,  where  the  white  population  is 
to  this  day  very  sparse.  One  speaks  with  reserve  of 
failure,  however,  when  one  reflects  upon  an  episode  like 
the  following,  which  doubtless  could  be  duplicated 
many  times  over  in  the  experience  of  any  traveler  who 
knows  the  northern  wilderness.  In  1905  a  Cree  Indian 
came  out  on  the  Labrador  coast,  having  traveled  on  foot 
all  the  way  from  Georges  Bay  to  buy  ammunition.  A 
traveler  noticed  that  he  wore  a  crucifix  and  presently 
heard  the  man  speak  French.  The  Indian  when 
questioned  declared  that  his  ancestors  had  always  been 
Christians.  There  had  never  been  a  time  when  there 
were  not  French  priests  in  the  villages  of  his  tribe.  It 
is  probable  that  that  statement  is  true  for  at  least  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years. 

226.  British  settlements  in  North  America. — We  have 
seen  that  the  English  had  their  part  in  the  work  of  the 
early  adventurers  and  discoverers.  There  were  few 
years  after  Cabot's  memorable  voyage  in  1497  when 


298  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

fishermen  did  not  go  to  the  Newfoundland  shores.  By 
1527  the  little  Devonshire  fishing  craft  proved  unable  to 
carry  home  their  catch  and  large  merchant  vessels  were 
employed.  An  act  of  1541  classed  the  Newfoundland 
trade  among  the  sources  of  wealth  of  the  British  Isles. 
In  1583  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  received  letters  of  patent 
from  Queen  Elizabeth  to  plant  a  colony  upon  the  New- 
foundland shores.  Between  1586  and  1603  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  made  repeated  efforts  to  establish  a  colony  in 
the  wide  territory  named  Virginia  in  honor  of  the  Queen. 
The  Virginia  Company,  however,  made  its  first  perma- 
nent settlement  at  Jamestown  in  1607.  In  1620  there 
was  made  a  settlement  of  a  very  different  order.  A 
small  body  of  religious  dissidents,  including  some  who 
had  previously  migrated  to  Holland  to  escape  the 
discipline  of  the  established  church,  landed  at  Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts.  They  had  obtained  permis- 
sion from  the  Virginia  Company  to  settle  within  the 
lands  which  the  company  claimed.  Later  they  received 
a  patent  from  the  council  for  New  England.  The 
compact  which  they  signed  in  the  cabin  of  their  vessel  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  epoch-making  documents  in  the 
history  of  civil  government.  They  were  followed  eight 
years  later  by  other  settlers  of  the  Puritan  mind,  yet  not 
so  hostile  to  the  Church  of  England  or  the  government 
of  the  king  as  the  Pilgrims  had  been.  These  settled 
at  Salem  and  Boston.  These  settlements  reflected 
the  convictions,  both  religious  and  political,  of  many 
Englishmen  of  that  era.  Members  of  these  communities 
returned  to  England  and  influenced  the  course  of  events 
under  the  Long  Parliament  and  the  Commonwealth. 
Thus  Massachusetts  and  Virginia  became  the  two  centers 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  299 

from    which    the    British    occupation    of    the   Atlantic 
seaboard  proceeded. 

The  contrast  in  type  was  indeed  marked.  The 
southern  type  which  prevailed  from  Maryland  south- 
ward were  for  the  most  part  of  Cavalier  sympathies. 
They  were  landowners,  often  younger  sons  of  the  landed 
gentry.  They  were  planters,  producing  tobacco,  Indian 
corn,  rice,  indigo,  and  cotton,  largely  by  the  aid  of  the 
labor  of  negro  slaves.  They  had  no  very  pronounced 
religious  leaning,  although  Maryland  was  founded  as  a 
Roman  Catholic  refuge  and  in  the  main  the  planters 
belonged  to  the  Church  of  England.  The  northern 
element  sought  to  establish  a  theocracy,  which  indeed 
ultimately  broke  down  but  left  marks  upon  New  England 
institutions  which  continue  to  this  day.  Their  prefer- 
ence was  for  independency.  The  New  Englanders  were 
often  traders  and  seafaring  men.  Midway  between  New 
England  and  Virginia  religion  had  again  much  to  do  with 
the  establishment  of  the  Quaker  colony,  Pennsylvania. 
So  also  the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians  came 
to  the  Middle  States  after  the  death  of  the  great  duke  of 
Argyll.  The  Dutch  colony  of  the  New  Netherlands,  with 
its  center  at  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York,  and  the 
Swedish  settlements  on  the  Delaware  were  presently 
absorbed  by  the  growing  English  and  Scottish  element. 
Germans  also  from  the  Palatinate  and  French  Huguenots 
driven  out  by  persecution  were  fused  in  the  mass  which 
presently,  by  the  logic  of  the  independence  which  the 
mother-country  had  always  accorded  them,  began  to  feel 
themselves  entitled  to  form  a  nation  by  themselves.  It 
was  this  freedom  which  they  already  possessed  and  the 
fact  that  Great  Britain  had  not  yet  thought  through  any 


300  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

satisfactory  theory  of  her  colonial  possessions  which  far 
more  than  any  oppression  and  injustice  brought  on  the 
War  of  the  Revolution.  In  1787,  with  the  formation  of 
the  Northwest  Territory  under  the  so-called  Connecticut 
Company,  the  peaceful  invasion  began  of  the  regions  to 
the  west  of  the  Appalachians  and  to  the  north  of  the 
Ohio  River,  an  area  of  infinite  possibilities  to  which  the 
British  had  never  made  any  effective  claim  and  in  which 
the  French  occupancy  had  been  but  shadowy.  From 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  came  the  revolt 
of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America  and  the  grant  by 
Great  Britain  to  Canada  of  the  amplest  rights  of  self- 
government,  which  in  the  end  have  cemented  the  bond 
between  northern  North  America  and  the  mother- 
country.  There  was  large  immigration  from  Ireland 
after  the  famine  in  the  forties  and  from  Germany  after 
the  Revolution  of  1848.  These  were,  however,  as 
nothing  compared  with  the  tide  which  set  in  at  the  end 
of  the  seventies,  bringing  men  of  every  European  race  to 
our  shores.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in  1849 
and  the  building  of  the  transcontinental  railways,  which 
soon  followed,  opened  the  country  as  far  as  the  Pacific. 
The  amalgamation  of  the  races  is  still  imperfect.  The 
ascendancy  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  now  in  hopeless  minority 
is  one  of  the  miracles  of  history.  The  Great  War  has 
done  much  for  the  fusion  of  races.  The  fire  is  under  the 
melting-pot. 

227.  Early  missions  among  the  Indians;  John  Eliot. — 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
devout  men  as  they  were,  were  not  consumed  with 
solicitude  for  the  salvation  of  the  souls  of  the  red  Indians' 
The  Indians  upon  whose  shores  they  had  landed  were 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  301 

warlike.  The  Pilgrims  were  few  in  number  and  they  too 
were  good  fighters.  They  intended  to  establish  a 
commonwealth  under  the  law  of  God.  That  law  they 
found  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  was  easy  for  them  to  apprehend  themselves  as  the 
Israel  of  Jehovah  and  the  red  men  as  the  Canaanites  who 
were  to  be  subdued.  Yet  there  were  times  of  better 
relations  of  the  settlers  with  the  Indians  and  there  were 
those  among  the  Puritans  who  took  a  very  different  view. 
John  Eliot,  who  had  taken  his  degree  at  Jesus  College  in 
Cambridge  in  1622  and  who  came  to  Boston  in  1631,  was 
the  first  to  devote  himself  to  the  task  of  preaching  the  gos- 
pel to  the  Indians.  Minister  at  Roxbury  after  1632,  he 
learned  the  dialects  of  the  neighboring  tribes.  He  first 
preached  successfully  to  the  Indians  at  Nonantum 
(Newton)  in  1646.  The  Massachusetts  General  Court 
voted  a  small  sum  for  the  prosecution  of  Eliot's  work. 
In  1649  the  Long  Parliament  incorporated  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  New  England,  which 
henceforth  supported  and  directed  the  work  inaugurated 
by  Eliot.  The  first  appeal  for  aid  brought  contributions 
of  £11,000.  Cromwell  devised  a  scheme  for  the  setting 
up  of  a  council  for  Protestant  missions  which  should  rival 
the  Roman  propaganda.  In  165 1  the  Christian  Indian 
town  founded  by  Eliot  was  removed  from  Nonantum 
to  Natick,  where  schools  also  were  erected.  Eliot's  suc- 
cess moved  the  May  hews,  father  and  son,  to  establish 
similar  missions  on  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket. 
In  many  of  the  parishes,  especially  on  Cape  Cod,  the 
ministers  acted  as  missionaries  to  the  Indians.  By 
1674  the  unofficial  census  of  the  " praying  Indians" 
numbered   four   thousand.     Caleb    Cheeshahteanmuck, 


302  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

an  Indian  from  Martha's  Vineyard,  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1665.  He  died  in  1666.  King 
Philip's  War  dealt  a  staggering  blow  to  the  missionary 
enterprise. 

228.  Literary  work;  societies. — Of  wide  influence  was 
Eliot's  work  as  translator  of  the  Bible  and  of  other  books 
into  the  Massachusetts  dialect  of  the  Algonquin  language. 
The  first  book  completed  was  the  Catechism,  which  was 
printed  at  Cambridge  in  1653.  It  was  the  first  book 
printed  in  an  Indian  language.  The  New  Testament 
was  issued  in  166 1.  On  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy 
in  England  and  through  the  influence  of  Richard  Baxter 
with  the  Lord  Chancellor  Hyde,  the  charter  granted  by 
Cromwell  was  renewed  and  its  powers  amplified.  The 
corporation  was  now  styled  "The  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  New  England  and  parts  adjacent 
to  America."  Its  object  was  declared  to  be  "not  merely 
to  seek  the  outward  welfare  of  these  colonies  but  more 
especially  to  endeavor  the  good  of  their  immortal  souls 
and  the  publishing  of  the  most  glorious  gospel  of  Christ 
among  them."  On  the  list  of  the  corporators  the  first 
name  was  that  of  Clarendon.  Robert  Boyle  was  ap- 
pointed president.  It  was  Boyle  who  assisted  Eliot  in 
the  publication  of  his  Testament.  George  Fox,  the 
Quaker,  wrote  "to  all  Friends  everywhere  that  have 
Indians  or  blacks,  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  them."  To 
the  efforts  of  various  high  prelates  in  the  Church  of 
England,  including  William  Wade,  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  to  the  influence  of  Rev.  Thomas  Bray, 
who  had  worked  long  in  Maryland,  may  perhaps  be 
ascribed  the  founding  in  1701  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts. 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  303 

229.  The  Moravian  missions. — Bishop  Berkeley,  who 
from  1728  spent  three  years  in  Rhode  Island,  took  deep 
interest  in  the  Indians.  In  1734  John  Sargent,  of 
Yale  College,  opened  a  school  among  the  Housatonics. 
Jonathan  Edwards,  after  his  retirement  from  Northamp- 
ton, devoted  himself  in  part  to  work  among  the  Indians 
at  Stockbridge.  He  had  been  moved  by  personal  inter- 
course with  David  Brainerd,  who  in  1742  had  been 
appointed  by  the  Scottish  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Christian  Knowledge  to  work  among  the  Indians  at 
Stockbridge  and  also  at  Albany.  He  labored  also 
among  the  tribes  on  the  Delaware  River  in  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey.  He  died  in  1747  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
nine.  His  character  and  experience  were  deemed  so 
remarkable  that  John  Wesley  wrote  a  memoir  which  was 
published  at  Bristol,  England,  in  1768.  Both  Dart- 
mouth College  in  New  Hampshire  and  Hamilton  College 
in  New  York  grew  out  of  schools  originally  established 
for  Indian  youth.  But  the  great  work  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  this  regard  was  done  by  the  Moravians. 
They  began  their  labor  at  Sharon,  Connecticut,  in  1742, 
the  headquarters  of  the  church  having  been  established 
at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  in  1740.  The  heroic 
personality  was  David  Zeisberger.  He  worked  among 
the  Delawares  at  Shamokin  and  among  the  Iroquois  at 
Onandaga,  where  the  "Six  Nations"  made  him  a 
Sachem.  He  organized  the  effort  of  his  denomination  in 
North  Carolina,  in  the  New  England  provinces,  and  in 
Canada.  His  most  successful  settlements  were  in  Ohio. 
Zeisberger  left  in  manuscript  grammars  and  lexicons 
which  are  almost  our  only  source  of  knowledge  of  several 
of  the  Indian  languages,  widely  spread  in  the  eighteenth 


304  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

century,  which  are  now  extinct.  Similar  work  was  done 
by  Moravians  in  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Dutch  and 
Danish  and  British  West  Indies. 

230.  Government  relations;  nineteenth-century  mis- 
sions.— After  1 781  Congress  began  to  provide  for  the 
education  of  Indian  youth  in  various  schools,  especially 
for  their  education  in  agriculture  and  trades,  and  after 
1783  began  a  system  of  reservation  of  public  lands  for 
the  Indians.  But  neither  the  government's  treatment 
of  the  tribes  nor  that  of  traders  and  settlers  can  be  looked 
upon  with  pride.  It  is  in  the  main  a  sordid  and  tragic 
page  of  history.  The  status  of  the  Indian  was  uncertain. 
For  a  long  time  the  tribes  were  looked  upon  as  foreign 
nations  with  whom  treaties  were  to  be  made.  The 
Sioux  are  still  not  citizens.  Again  they  were  looked 
upon  as  wards  of  the  nation  to  whom  special  protection 
was  theoretically  accorded  but  who  had  none  of  the 
rights  and  safety  of  citizens.  The  public  conscience  was 
spasmodically  aroused.  Official  relations  have  been 
better  within  the  last  generation.  But  meantime  the 
Indians  have  almost  disappeared.  The  career  of 
Marcus  Whitman  was  one  of  perfect  devotion  to  the 
Kayuse  Indians  in  what  is  now  the  state  of  Washington. 
He  with  his  family  and  ten  other  persons  were  murdered 
by  these  Indians  in  1847.  The  thing  for  which  Win t man 
is  mainly  remembered  is  the  fact  that  in  the  winter 
of  1842-43  he  rode  on  horseback  from  his  station 
in  the  Columbia  River  country  to  St.  Louis  on  his 
way  to  Washington  to  prevent  the  government  from 
yielding  the  far  northwest  of  what  is  now  the  United 
States  to  the  British  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Trading 
Company. 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  305 

Stephen  Riggs  spent  forty-five  years  in  active  and 
successful  work  among  the  Dakotas  and  Sioux.  He 
reduced  the  Dakota  language  to  writing  and  translated 
into  it  almost  the  whole  Bible.  He  lived  to  see  ten 
churches  organized  among  the  tribesmen  under  native 
pastors.  No  man  ever  did  more  to  bring  order  out  of  the 
confusion  of  the  government's  relation  to  the  Indians 
than  did  Bishop  Whipple  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  in  America.  He  was  bishop  of  the  see  of  Minne- 
sota and  early  came  into  contact  with  these  problems. 
The  memorial  which  he  presented  to  President  Lincoln 
in  1862  is  a  historic  document.  His  suggestions  are 
believed  to  have  led  to  the  appointment  by  President 
Grant  of  the  Indian  Commission.  Something  similar 
should  be  said  of  Bishop  Hare.  William  Duncan  came 
to  Fort  Simpson  in  British  Columbia  in  1857  to  establish 
a  mission  among  the  Tsimshian  Indians.  He  organized 
his  people  into  a  civic  community,  accepting  none  who 
would  not  pledge  themselves  to  the  rules  of  the  colony. 
He  kept  them  apart  from  both  the  whites  and  the  rest 
of  the  Indians.  The  trade  and  industries  of  the  little 
community  made  it  the  envy  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Difficulties  with  the  Canadian  government  led  him  to 
transfer  his  settlement  to  the  territory  of  Alaska,  where 
the  United  States  assigned  him  Annette  Island.  The 
official  name  of  the  noteworthy  colony  was  the  Com- 
munity of  Metlakahtla.  The  commissioner  of  education 
in  1896  gave  a  striking  account  of  the  success  of 
Duncan's  venture.  The  Moravian  missions  among  the 
Eskimos  have  at  times  achieved  a  situation  resembling 
that  of  Metlakahtla  in  Duncan's  time.  But  the  contact 
with  the  outside  world  is  perilous.     Rarely  do  Indians 


306  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

come  up  under  this  patriarchal  regime  who  are  able  to 
cope  with  the  great  life  of  the  world  when  this  is  forced 
upon  them. 

231.  Australia. — There  is  little  doubt  that  Spaniards 
under  de  Torres  sailing  from  Callao  saw  the  Australian 
coast  in  1602.  It  is  certain  that  Pelsaert,  a  Hollander 
sailing  from  Batavia,  reached  the  west  coast  in  1629, 
and  Tasman  discovered  and  claimed  Van  Dieman's  land 
in  1642.  The  island  now  bears  the  name  Tasmania. 
Yet  so  little  was  known  of  this  region  that  when  in  1769 
James  Cook  fitted  out  his  ship  the  "Endeavor,"  pri- 
marily to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  he  was  expressly 
commissioned  to  ascertain  "whether  the  unexplored 
part  of  the  southern  hemisphere  be  only  an  immense 
mass  of  water  or  contain  another  continent. "  The 
transit  was  observed  from  Tahiti.  Cook  landed  in 
October  at  Poverty  Bay  on  the  coast  of  New  Zealand 
and  in  April  of  the  following  year  at  a  point  which 
geographers  now  identify  with  Cape  Everard  in  Aus- 
tralia. A  British  colony  was  sent  to  Botany  Bay 
in  1788.  The  exploration  of  the  interior  was  begun  in 
1 8 13.  It  has  been  the  task  of  a  century,  if  indeed 
it  can  be  said  to  be  even  now  complete.  Sydney  was 
the  first  seat  of  government  after  1788.  Melbourne 
was  founded  in  1835.  Several  places  on  the  coast  were 
long  used  as  criminal  colonies.  Gold  was  discovered 
in  185 1  by  a  miner  from  California.  The  white  popula- 
tion is  about  five  million,  almost  exclusively  of  British 
origin.  Labor  legislation  has  here  had  an  interesting 
history.  The  aborigines  have  had  almost  no  part  as 
workmen  in  the  economic  development  of  the  country. 
There  has  been  rooted  objection  to  the  presence  of 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  307 

Chinese  laborers.  Polynesians,  however,  have  from 
time  to  time  been  brought  in  under  a  contract  system. 
The  number  of  aborigines  surviving  is  hardly  above 
fifty  thousand.  These  peoples  had  no  civilization  what- 
soever of  their  own  and  have  been  but  slightly  touched 
by  the  civilization  of  the  whites.  The  London  Mission- 
ary Society  originated  work  among  the  Australian 
aborigines  at  Lake  Macquarie  in  1825,  but  the  tribes 
among  whom  this  work  was  prosecuted  had  practi- 
cally become  extinct  before  1861.  Gossner  of  the  Ber- 
lin Society  spent  his  life  at  Moreton  and  Keppel  Bay. 
The  migratory  habits  of  the  tribes  and  the  influence 
of  vicious  whites  broke  up  the  work.  The  Moravians 
had  at  one  time  twenty-six  stations  on  the  Australian 
continent.  The  government  aided  them  in  maintaining 
reservations  and  schools.  The  Australian  churches  of 
various  denominations  have  now  inherited  this  task. 
The  Bushmen  do  not  adapt  themselves  to  the  life  on 
the  reservations  and  the  number  of  those  who  have 
been  Christianized  is  exceedingly  small. 

232.  New  Zealand. — Christian  work  upon  New  Zea- 
land has  a  very  different  history.  The  natives  are  of 
Malay  origin  and  superior  both  mentally  and  physically 
to  any  others  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  islands. 
Samuel  Marsden,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, chaplain  of  the  penal  colony  at  Port  Jackson  in 
Australia  in  1807,  was  so  struck  by  the  character  and 
ability  of  certain  Maoris  who  had  been  brought  to  his 
settlement  that  he  persuaded  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  to  undertake  a  mission  to  New  Zealand.  The 
work  was  inaugurated  in  18 14,  several  Maoris  who  knew 
English,  one  of  them  a  chief,  accompanying  Marsden 


308  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

and  interpreting  for  him.  Such  progress  was  made 
that  George  Selwyn,  a  Cambridge  man,  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  New  Zealand  in  184 1.  In  1843  ne  established, 
at  Auckland,  St.  John's  College  for  the  education  of  a 
native  ministry  among  the  islanders.  He  realized  the 
necessity  of  using  native  laborers  for  pioneer  work. 
He  himself  was  able  to  supervise  their  training,  having 
early  mastered  several  dialects.  He  left  some  interest- 
ing studies  in  comparative  grammar.  From  the  first 
he  insisted  that  St.  John's  College  should  give  instruc- 
tion in  medicine.  Not  content  with  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  work  in  New  Zealand,  he  provided  a  ship  and 
before  his  first  return  to  England  in  1854  he  had  made 
several  long  voyages,  visiting  fifty  of  the  Melanesian 
Islands.  From  ten  of  these  he  induced  youth  to  go 
to  his  college  to  prepare  for  work  as  evangelists  among 
their  own  peoples.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  organ- 
izing the  Australian  Board  of  Missions  and  secured  the 
adoption  by  the  Church  of  Australia  of  the  Melanesian 
Mission  as  its  peculiar  field.  Selwyn  spent  twenty- 
seven  years  in  Australasia,  and  when  finally  induced 
in  1868  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  accept 
the  bishopric  of  Litchfield  it  was  with  the  hope  that 
with  his  remaining  years  he  might  render  his  greatest 
service  of  all  by  enabling  the  Church  of  England,  the 
British  government  and  people,  to  see  its  opportunity 
through  missions  for  the  Christianization  of  the  world. 
Not  the  least  of  those  things  which  the  world  owes 
him  was  the  fact  that  when  he  preached  his  farewell 
sermon  before  leaving  England  for  the  first  time  his 
words  so  moved  a  boy  of  fourteen  who  was  among 
his  hearers  that  fourteen  years  later,  returning  to  his 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  309 

field  after  his  first  furlough,  he  took  with  him  as  a  mis- 
sionary that  youth,  an  Oxford  man,  John  Coleridge 
Patteson,  who  later  became  the  martyr  bishop  of  Mela- 
nesia. Selwyn  had  said,  "I  seem  to  see  a  nation  born 
in  a  day."  Not  long  afterward  war  broke  out  in  the 
islands  occasioned  by  the  struggle  with  the  settlers 
concerning  land.  The  old  superstitions  seemed  again 
to  claim  the  Maoris.  Whitely,  a  Wesleyan  who  had 
given  his  life  to  the  people,  was  shot  in  1869.  Labor 
conditions  and  the  influx  of  foreigners  in  more  recent 
years  have  affected  the  Maoris  unfavorably.  There 
are  thought  to  be  still  some  forty  thousand  Maoris,  of 
whom  half  are  Christian  adherents. 

233.  Melanesia. — We  spoke  of  Patteson.  He  was  a 
relative  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  educated  at  Eton 
and  Balliol,  after  1852  a  Fellow  of  Merton.  For  five 
years  he  aided  Selwyn  in  his  educational  work  for 
the  native  assistants.  In  1861  he  was  made  bishop  of 
the  Melanesian  Islands.  He  reduced  to  writing  several 
of  the  languages.  He  translated  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  into  these  languages.  He  made  his  head- 
quarters at  Motu  in  the  northern  New  Hebrides. 
Thence  he  made  many  voyages  to  the  other  islands  of 
his  diocese  in  his  ship,  the  "Southern  Cross."  He  was 
not  merely  a  preacher  and  teacher.  He  was  interested 
in  the  economic  and  industrial  conditions  of  his  people, 
which  were  fast  changing  since  the  coming  of  the  whites. 
He  often  navigated  his  own  ship.  He  lost  his  life  in  a 
manner  which  is  worthy  of  record.  The  traders  engaged 
in  the  nefarious  traffic  in  Kaneka  labor  for  Fiji  and 
Queensland  had  taken  to  personating  missionaries  in 
order   to   facilitate  their  kidnapping.    In  September, 


3io  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

1 87 1,  Patteson  approaching  Nakapu  on  one  of  his  pe- 
riodical tours  was  mistaken  for  one  of  these  marauders 
and  killed.  His  murderers  evidently  found  out  their 
mistake  and  regretted  it.  The  bishop's  body  was  found 
far  out  at  sea  floating  in  a  canoe  covered  with  a  palm- 
fiber  matting  and  with  a  palm  branch  in  his  hand. 
He  is  thus  represented  in  the  bas-relief  erected  at  Mer- 
ton  College  in  his  memory.  He  was  forty-four  years 
old.  He  had  been  a  famous  oarsman  in  his  college  days. 
Scarcely  less  notable  is  the  career  of  John  Paton,  who 
also  gave  his  life  to  the  New  Hebrides.  Paton  was  a 
Scotchman  from  the  neighborhood  of  Dumfries.  He 
was  of  humble  origin  and  overcame  great  difficulties 
in  gaining  his  education.  He  went  out  in  1858  to 
Anietyum,  where  there  was  already  a  mission  under 
John  Geddie  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Geddie  and  his  colleagues,  after  perilous  begin- 
nings, had  transformed  the  island,  which  ten  years 
before  had  been  inhabited  by  naked  cannibals,  into  the 
abode  of  a  Christian  community.  Under  the  parental 
oversight  of  the  Scottish  missionaries  and  the  absolute 
authority  of  three  chiefs  there  had  been  organized  a 
society  in  which  the  gospel  was  really  the  law  of  every 
relation  of  the  life  of  these  simple  people.  Paton  and 
his  wife  narrowly  escaped  drifting  upon  Tanna,  where 
at  that  time  they  certainly  would  have  been  killed  at 
once  by  the  natives.  These  latter  were  sufficiently  war- 
like but  now  had  been  roused  to  fury  by  the  robbery 
and  rape  and  murder  to  which  they  had  been  subjected 
by  crews  of  vessels  who  in  those  remote  regions  had 
allowed  themselves  every  excess  in  dealing  with  the 
helpless  savages.    Later  the  Patons  worked  upon  Tanna 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  311 

and  again  upon  Aniwa  the  same  miracle  which  Geddie 
and  his  compeers  had  wrought  at  Anietyum.  When 
Pa  ton  visited  the  United  States  and  England  in  1892, 
as  he  had  already  visited  Australia,  it  was  in  the  effort 
to  arouse  sentiment  in  these  countries  against  the  liquor 
trade,  the  contract  labor  system,  and  the  traffic  in  girls, 
which  was  fast  destroying  the  fruit  of  the  labor  of  his 
devoted  life.  One  lifetime  had  sufficed  to  see  his  island- 
ers raised  from  primitive  savagery  to  the  virtues  of 
children  in  a  devout  home  and  then  again  demoralized 
and  corrupted  by  the  contagion  of  all  the  vices  and 
crimes  wherein  civilized  man  so  far  outdoes  the  barba- 
rian and  descends  below  the  beast. 

234.  Polynesia;  Society  and  Hervey  Islands;  Wil- 
liams.— We  have  followed  the  geographical  line  of  the 
development  of  this  history  as  it  led  from  the  great 
territories  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  In  point  of 
time  there  were  missions  in  the  island  world  which 
were  much  older  than  these  in  the  New  Hebrides.  In 
some  of  these  cases  the  development  of  the  Christian 
communities  was  less  disturbed  because  the  islands  had 
lain  farther  from  the  lines  of  trade.  It  is  not  known 
that  any  white  man  before  John  Williams  ever  reached 
the  Hervey  Islands,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  New 
Hebrides  had  been  subject  to  the  abuse  of  passing  trad- 
ers for  seventy  years.  Williams  was  born  near  London 
in  1796.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  offered  himself  to  the 
London  Missionary  Society  to  be  sent  to  the  South 
Seas.  He  was  stationed  first  at  one  of  the  Society 
Islands.  Afterward  at  the  invitation  of  the  king  he 
went  to  Raiatea,  the  largest  island  of  the  group,  which 
henceforth  became  his  headquarters.    His  success  was 


312  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

remarkable.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  ordered  life 
of  the  community  as  well  as  of  the  Christian  church. 
In  1823  he  was  permitted  by  the  king  to  visit  the 
Hervey  Islands.  He  took  with  him  six  native  teachers 
and  landed  first  on  Rarotonga.  Here  he  was  even  more 
successful.  All  the  islands  became  nominally  Chris- 
tian. Williams  at  their  request  helped  the  people  to 
draw  up  a  code  of  laws  for  civil  administration.  In 
educational  as  well  as  in  religious  work  he  made  use 
of  native  teachers  whom  he  had  trained.  He  trans- 
lated portions  of  the  Scripture  into  the  language  of 
the  islands.  Rarotonga  being  out  of  the  usual  course 
of  vessels,  he  built  a  ship  which  he  named  the  "Messen- 
ger of  Peace."  In  1830  he  visited  the  Samoan  Islands 
and  in  1832  he  established  there  a  permanent  work. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  had  borne  an  evil 
name  for  their  ferocity.  In  less  than  two  years  the 
whole  life  of  the  islands  had  been  changed.  All  the 
interests  of  the  people  were  submitted  to  the  guidance 
of  the  missionary,  who  at  the  end  of  that  period  was 
able  to  leave  them  with  measurably  competent  leaders 
of  their  own  race.  In  1834  Williams  returned  to  Eng- 
land much  impaired  in  health.  He  raised  money  for 
the  purchase  and  equipment  of  a  proper  ship  for  the 
Polynesian  service  and  laid  plans  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college  for  native  preachers  and  teachers  at  Tahiti. 
He  had  written  a  Narrative  of  Missionary  Enterprises 
in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  which  remains  to  this  day 
one  of  the  authoritative  sources  of  information  concern- 
ing the  languages,  customs,  and  religion  of  the  Poly- 
nesians as  they  were  at  the  time  when  white  men  first 
came  into  contact  with  them.     Incidentally  it  is  the 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  313 

revelation  of  a  most  courageous,  resourceful,  and  cheer- 
ful personality.  Returning  to  the  scene  of  his  old 
labors  in  1838,  Williams  was  drawn  as  by  a  magnet 
to  the  point  of  greatest  difficulty,  the  New  Hebrides. 
He  pushed  on  in  1839  with  one  companion  to  Erro- 
manga.  He  was  murdered  almost  immediately  upon 
landing  on  that  island. 

235.  The  Sandwich  Islands;  Hawaii. — Captain  Cook 
named  these  islands,  discovered  in  1778,  in  honor  of 
the  Earl  of  Sandwich.  There  are  eight  islands  of  con- 
siderable area  of  which  Hawaii  is  by  far  the  largest. 
The  aboriginal  inhabitants  belonged  to  the  Malayo- 
Polynesian  race.  They  were  of  superior  physique, 
hardy,  and  industrious.  Cook  estimated  their  number 
at  four  hundred  thousand.  That  figure  was  probably 
far  too  large.  The  census  in  1832  showed  only  a  hun- 
dred and  thirty  thousand.  There  are  now  hardly 
twenty-five  thousand.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  men  of  mixed  race  and  there 
are  great  numbers  of  foreigners — Portuguese  from  the 
Azores  and  Madeira,  Spaniards  from  the  sugar  islands 
about  Malaga,  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Koreans,  besides 
the  Americans.  King  Kamehameha  in  1795  made  John 
Young  and  Isaac  Davis,  Americans  from  one  of  the 
ships  of  Captain  Metcalf,  his  advisers  and  encouraged 
trade  with  foreigners.  Thus  began  the  efforts  of  the 
native  sovereigns  to  transform  the  government  and  civ- 
ilization of  the  island  kingdom  more  or  less  after  the 
pattern  of  European  states.  The  imagination  of  Mills 
and  Hall  had  been  touched  by  their  contact  with 
Obookiah,  a  Hawaiian  Island  lad  who,  escaping  after 
the  murder  of  his  family,  had  been  brought  by  a  friendly 


314  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

sea  captain  to  New  Haven  and  who  was  found  weeping 
upon  the  steps  of  the  college.  It  was  not  until  1819 
that  the  first  mission  was  sent  to  Hawaii  by  the  Ameri- 
can Board.  In  this  original  group  there  were  two 
clergymen,  Hiram  Bingham  and  Thurston,  two  teach- 
ers, a  physician,  a  printer,  and  a  farmer,  besides  three 
young  islanders  who  like  Obookiah  had  been  educated 
at  Cornwall,  Connecticut.  An  English  missionary  of 
the  London  Society,  William  Ellis  from  the  Society 
Islands,  aided  the  Americans  in  their  first  attempts 
to  reduce  the  language  of  Hawaii  to  writing.  In  1823 
came  seven  more  missionaries  and  three  more  Hawaiian 
youth  from  the  Cornwall  school.  In  1824  both  the 
king  and  the  queen,  visiting  England,  died  there.  The 
young  prince  who  was  to  succeed  to  the  throne  was 
committed  to  the  missionaries  to  be  educated.  The 
regent  was  a  woman  of  high  character.  She  and  her 
ministers  were  favorable  to  the  missionary  cause. 
Their  educational  work  was  so  successful  that  scarcely 
a  native  was  left  who  was  unable  to  read  and  write. 
In  1825  the  Ten  Commandments  were  recognized  by 
the  king  as  the  basis  of  a  code  of  laws.  By  agreement 
of  the  chiefs  the  observance  of  Sunday  was  ordered. 
Religious  work  was  especially  successful  in  the  island 
of  Hilo,  where  Titus  Coan  worked  after  1835.  By  1888 
the  church  on  that  island  had  become  self-supporting 
and  sent  missionaries  to  the  Gilbert  Islands  and  to 
the  Marquesas. 

Here  also  the  increase  in  the  importation  of  liquor 
into  the  islands,  most  of  it  brought  by  American  ships, 
wrought  havoc  among  the  population.  The  visits  of 
women  of  the  island  to  the  ships  lying  in  the  harbor 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  315 

spread  every  kind  of  evil.  There  grew  up  a  body  of 
adventurous  spirits  who  exploited  the  more  or  less  un- 
certain rule  of  the  island  potentates  for  their  own  bene- 
fit. There  was  trouble  with  the  French  government  in 
1842  touching  matters  of  trade  and  also  concerning  the 
privileges  of  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Advantage 
was  taken  of  the  situation  in  the  rashness  of  a  British 
naval  officer,  who  sought  to  induce  the  king  to  cede 
the  islands  to  Great  Britain.  Through  the  tact,  how- 
ever, of  Richards,  an  American  missionary  who  had 
been  sent  by  the  king  to  Europe  to  plead  his  cause,  the 
independence  of  the  Hawaiian  nation  was  in  1843  for- 
mally acknowledged.  In  1826  there  were  twenty-five 
thousand  scholars  in  the  mission  schools.  In  1839  the 
work  of  translating  the  whole  Bible  was  finished  by 
Bingham.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  his  son,  Hiram 
Bingham,  Jr.,  completed  and  published  in  1908  the 
translation  of  the  whole  Scripture  into  the  language  of 
the  Gilbert  Islands.  The  generation  from  1843  till  1874 
was  the  best  period  of  the  islands  under  native  rule,  as 
it  was  also  the  period  of  the  greatest  achievement  of 
the  Christian  movement  in  the  circle  of  the  native 
population.  In  1863  the  American  Board  transferred 
its  interests  to  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association, 
a  body  composed  in  part  of  the  descendants  of  for- 
eigners, mainly  Americans,  long  resident  in  the  islands 
and  in  part  of  representatives  of  the  indigenous  race 
converted  to  Christianity.  Christians  of  many  races 
resident  in  the  islands  but  especially  of  the  race  which 
Cook  had  found  there  as  naked  savages  were  now 
joined  in  an  organization  which  was  able  to  meet  the 
religious  needs  of  the  islands  themselves  and  also  to 


316  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

take  responsibility  for  the  furtherance  of  the  cause  of 
the  gospel  in  other  islands  and  even  in  China. 

With  the  alternation  of  constitutionalism  and  reac- 
tion in  the  government  and  with  the  somewhat  sordid 
history  of  the  rivalries  of  various  nations  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  growing  trade  of  the  islands  and  finally 
of  the  islands  themselves  this  sketch  has  little  to  do. 
Neither  Europeans  nor  Americans  emerge  from  the 
struggle  without  stain.  The  dynasty  declined  in  vigor 
in  a  degree  even  more  rapid  than  that  which  was  observ- 
able in  the  case  of  the  native  stock  as  a  whole.  Mean- 
time the  islands  had  come  to  be  at  the  very  crossroads 
of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific.  The  ambitions  of  the 
king,  Kalakaua,  brought  him  near  to  conflict  with  the 
great  powers,  yet  he  was  finally  overthrown  in  1887  by 
a  revolution  of  his  own  people.  Under  his  successor, 
Queen  Liliuokalani,  intervention  of  the  United  States 
came  about  in  the  familiar  manner  under  the  plea 
that  subjects  of  that  government  must  be  protected. 
There  was  a  provisional  government  and  after  that  a 
Hawaiian  republic  under  the  presidency  of  Samuel  B. 
Dole.  In  1895  the  Queen  renounced  all  claim  to  the 
throne  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  republic. 
In  1898  sovereignty  was  formally  transferred  to  the 
United  States.  This  consummation  was  desired  by 
many,  chiefly  Americans,  in  the  islands.  Desire  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States  had  been  suddenly  much 
enhanced  by  the  fact  that  in  that  summer,  1898,  the 
United  States  had  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
Philippines.  The  Christian  communities  of  the  native 
stock  had  had  their  best  days  when  under  a  kind  of 
patriarchal    guidance    and    in   the    simpler    conditions 


THE  AMERICAS  AND  THE  ISLANDS  317 

which  at  first  obtained.  They  had  found  extraordi- 
narily difficult  the  maintenance  of  the  Christian  life 
in  the  midst  of  the  complex  conditions  which  make 
Christian  life  difficult  in  America  and  England  as  well. 
Yet  neither  the  amazing  achievement  of  the  missions  in 
Hawaii  in  the  first  two  generations  nor  the  participa- 
tion of  Hawaiian  Christians  in  the  world's  work  at  this 
present  moment  can  be  forgotten.  The  lot  of  Hawaii 
is  typical  of  the  history  of  almost  all  the  islands.  It 
awakens  sentiments  alike  of  admiration  and  of  poignant 
regret  for  results  which  in  part  at  least  not  even  the 
efforts  of  the  most  heroic  souls  have  been  able  to  pre- 
vent. Time  would  fail  to  tell  of  the  work  which  has 
been  done  upon  the  Fiji  Islands  and  Samoa  in  the  ear- 
lier days  or  again  upon  the  Gilberts  and  Marshalls  and 
Carolines  in  more  recent  times.  For  some  reason  the 
physique  of  the  Fiji  Islanders  seems  to  have  endured 
the  contact  with  the  white  man's  civilization  better 
than  that  of  any  other  of  the  islanders.  Christian  life 
and  institutions  seem  also  to  have  been  more  permanent 
here  than  elsewhere.  There  are  more  than  a  thousand 
churches  in  the  islands  and  five-sixths  of  the  non- 
European  population  are  reported  by  the  census  of 
1 9 10  as  having  some  relation  to  the  Wesleyan  or  Ro- 
man Catholic  churches. 


CONCLUSION 

Two  broad  contrasts  emphasized  by  the  war  have 
special  bearing  upon  the  problem  discussed  in  this  book. 
They  appear  to  be  the  immediately  urgent  aspects  of 
Christianization  to  which  nations,  churches,  and  indi- 
viduals must  address  themselves.  The  first  might  be 
described  in  the  phrase,  the  altruism  of  nations.  This 
quality  was  displayed  during  the  war.  It  will  assuredly 
be  enjoined  in  the  peace  which  is  to  follow.  The 
war  began  with  the  invasion  of  the  territory  of  a  small 
nation  by  the  armies  of  a  powerful  neighbor.  Cities  of 
the  former  were  destroyed,  its  lands  occupied,  its 
resources  appropriated,  its  people  oppressed.  The 
indignation  everywhere  aroused  had  something  to  do 
with  the  arraying,  at  last,  of  almost  the  whole  world 
against  the  aggressor.  The  sentiment  thus  created 
spread  far  beyond  its  application  to  the  particular  case 
involved.  The  assertion  of  the  rights  of  smaller  nations, 
the  guaranty  of  the  privilege  of  free  development  to  less 
powerful  peoples,  the  protection  and  assistance  of 
backward  races — phrases  like  these  became  watchwords 
in  the  long  struggle.  These  ideas,  along  with  the  hope 
of  doing  away  with  some,  at  least,  of  the  conditions 
which  have  occasioned  wars,  animated  masses  of  men 
and  women  in  every  country  and  sustained  them  in  their 
deeds  and  sufferings.  The  fulfilment  of  such  ideals  in 
time  of  peace  will  prove  far  more  difficult  than  was  their 
enunciation  in  time  of  war.  Yet,  should  there  be  a 
falling  off  from  these  high  purposes,  should  the  victors 

318 


CONCLUSION  319 

return  to  the  old  petty  and  paltry  basis  of  mere  selfish 
territorial  and  economic  aggrandizement,  surely  this 
would  be  a  betrayal  of  ends  for  which  men  gladly  laid 
down  their  lives.  On  the  other  hand,  aspirations  have 
thus  been  quickened  in  the  hearts  of  peoples  who  mani- 
fest few  of  the  qualities  without  which  representative 
government  cannot  exist.  It  is  easy  to  assume  the  name 
of  a  constitutional  monarchy  or  to  declare  a  republic. 
In  these  difficult  times  there  is  not  much  in  a  name.  The 
fine  balance  between  self-assertion  and  self-restraint  in 
the  conduct  of  individuals,  of  parties,  or  of  classes  has 
been  the  fruit  of  centuries  of  costly  experience  and  stern 
discipline  in  those  free  governments  which  have  attained 
permanence.  The  illusion  only  too  easily  obtains  that 
it  can  be  achieved  tomorrow  by  peoples  delivered  from 
virtual  servitude  but  yesterday.  Furthermore,  by  the 
claim  that  oppressed  peoples  and  backward  races  are 
now  to  come  by  their  own,  ancient  jealousies  and  historic 
animosities  have  been  revived.  Peoples  mutually 
hostile  have  been  in  time  past  held  together  in  some 
kind  of  unity,  often  against  their  own  will,  by  imperial 
regimes  which  have  now  passed  away.  The  ancient 
hatreds  flame  up  only  the  more. 

Guardianships  exercised,  so  to  say,  under  mandate 
of  humanity  as  a  whole,  by  the  greater  nations  on  behalf 
of  others  suggest  themselves  as  the  best  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  Such  mandates,  if  they  can  really  be  brought 
to  pass,  will  represent  a  new  stage  in  the  contacts  of 
nations.  They  will  create  new  and  better  conditions 
under  which  the  assimilation  of  peoples  to  a  common 
type  of  life  and  civilization  may  take  place.  Such 
mandates  are  however  likely  at  first  to  be  looked  at 


320  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

askance  by  peoples  who  are  to  be  put  in  ward.  These 
fear  that  under  the  new  and  high-sounding  title  only 
the  old  exploitation  of  the  helpless  is  to  be  resumed. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  mandatory  such  as  is  here  contem- 
plated will  surely  be  onerous  and  difficult.  It  will 
involve  great  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  nations  exer- 
cising it.  Finally  both  parties  ask,  Will  there  be  a 
real  and  effective  League  of  Nations  under  which  such 
difficult  relations  between  nations  may  be  in  good  faith 
begun,  continued,  and  in  due  time  ended,  to  the  honor 
of  all  concerned  ?  Yet  surely,  unless  the  world  advances 
along  some  such  lines  as  are  here  laid  down,  it  will  have 
fought  the  war  to  some  extent  in  vain.  It  will  have  given 
men  opportunity  without  doing  anything  to  help  them 
to  avail  themselves  of  that  opportunity.  It  will  have 
removed  old  outward  restraints  without  having  sub- 
stituted mutual  respect  and  helpfulness.  The  war 
awakened  great  numbers  of  men  in  many  nations  to 
sentiments  to  which  they  had  before  been  largely 
strangers.  There  was  an  enthusiasm  for  humanity  as 
a  whole  and  a  purpose  for  the  bestowal  upon  all  who  need 
them  of  the  best  gifts  which  the  most  fortunate  nations 
possess.  This  elevated  popular  feeling  of  the  time  of 
war  runs  risk  of  lacking  that  kind  of  leadership  in  peace 
without  which  it  will  fail  of  its  best  results. 

This  assertion,  however,  of  national  duty  and  cor- 
porate responsibility  of  one  people  toward  another,  to 
be  exercised  in  political  and  economic  ways,  suggests 
the  other  point  which  we  had  singled  out  for  mention. 
It  suggests  that  proclivity  for  mass  movements,  that 
instinctive  resort  to  force  and  occasional  lapse  into 
violence,    which   manifests    itself,    even   more   readily 


CONCLUSION  321 

among  victors  than  among  vanquished,  in  the  sequel  of 
a  long  war.  No  matter  how  earnestly  men  may  have 
fought  for  an  ideal,  these  dangerous  tendencies,  which 
set  in  with  the  approach  of  peace,  are  strangely  liable  to 
concern  themselves  mainly  with  wages  and  prices  and 
the  utmost  speed  in  the  return  of  material  prosperity. 
There  is  some  reason  for  this.  No  war  ever  destroyed 
wealth  and  suspended  productive  labor  as  this  war  has 
done.  When  any  nation  has  been  reduced  to  the  point 
at  which  it  has  to  be  fed  and  clothed  by  another,  the 
kind  of  effort  conventionally  called  missionary  may  have 
to  be  postponed  for  an  interval.  Yet  civilization  will 
never  be  restored  by  the  re-creation  of  this  physical 
basis  alone.  Moreover,  not  alone  in  stricken  nations  are 
the  physical  wants  the  ones  which  are  at  first  over- 
whelmingly felt.  In  victorious  nations,  for  an  opposite 
reason,  the  same  material  necessities  are  the  ones  which, 
in  alarming  degree,  assume  the  upper  hand.  Here  the 
war  has  impoverished  some.  Others  it  has  enriched. 
It  has  enriched  some  by  the  mere  fact  that  they  were,  in 
the  crisis,  sordid  and  unscrupulous  enough  to  make  gain 
out  of  the  sufferings  of  their  fellows.  Trade  must 
indeed  be  resumed  with  additional  eagerness  to  cover 
losses.  But,  far  beyond  this,  passions  are  aroused  by 
possibilities  of  gain  hitherto  unimagined. 

No  war  ever  was  to  such  an  extent  dependent  upon 
the  industries.  The  morale  of  labor  was  fully  as  impor- 
tant as  was  that  of  the  troops.  In  the  moments  of 
greatest  stress  the  working  classes,  with  all  of  their 
devotion  to  their  respective  national  causes,  yet  de- 
manded and  secured  concessions  for  which  they  might 
otherwise  have  waited  long.    They  came  out  of  the 


322  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

war  with  these  solid  gains  and  also  with  an  intense 
class  consciousness  which  tends  to  destroy,  by  cleavage  in 
a  new  direction,  a  unity  of  society  which  the  struggle  of 
nations  had  achieved.    Political  questions  have  suddenly 
become  questions  of  class  and  economic  adjustment. 
There  is  something  portentous  in  the  isolation  in  which, 
for  the  moment,  these  questions  appear  to  stand,  and 
in  the  disregard,  for  the  moment,  of  all  other  aims,  so 
only  these  are  secured.     If  the  situation  thus  described 
stares  us  in  the  face  even  in  rich  America,  there  is  no 
wonder  that  it  obtains  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent.    Japan  and  India  and  China,  South  Africa  and 
Australia,  suffer  these  same  disturbances.     In  Turkey 
even  the  magnates  whom  the  massacres  enriched  show 
the  same  shocking  excesses.    The  subject  populations, 
whom  the  war  incredibly  impoverished,  will  show  them 
so  soon  as  their  present  question,  that  of  being  protected 
in  the  right  to  be  alive  at  all,  shall  have  found  a  passable 
solution.     For  one  and  all  of  these  peoples,  just  as  for 
our  ourselves,  the  recovery  even  of  those  sources  of 
happiness  which  life  offered  them  before  and,  still  more, 
the  advance  to  those  which  we  believe  the  war  has  made 
possible,  demands  far  more  than  money  and  ease.     It 
requires  the  rebuilding  of  all  those  agencies  which  are 
the  guardians  of  learning  and  of  charity  and  of  faith. 
It  requires  the  turning  of  men's  minds  again  to  the 
pursuit  of  truth,  to  the  exercise  of  mercy,  to  the  culti- 
vation of  religion.     Nothing  is  so  necessary  in  Europe 
and  America  at  the  present  moment  as  the  reassertion, 
in  new  power  and  majesty,  of  the  moral  values  and  the 
spiritual  ideals.     How  can  we  suppose  that  it  is  otherwise 
with  the  nations  which  the  war  has  brought  within  the 


CONCLUSION  323 

infection  of  our  own  evil,  and  likewise  under  the  influence 
of  our  good,  as  never  before.  Of  the  dissemination  of 
such  good,  however,  only  individuals  who  set  themselves 
this  high  task  are  the  effective  instruments.  Only 
ardent  minds  and  eager  souls  can  reach  and,  under  God, 
transform  minds  and  souls. 


REFERENCES 


REFERENCES 

In  general  definite  references  to  chapter  or  page  are  intended  to 
suggest  material  for  the  support,  amplification,  or  contradiction  of 
opinions  expressed  in  the  text.  Many  other  references  merely  give  the 
titles  of  books  relating  to  subjects  of  which  the  paragraphs  treat. 
Those  books  only  which  have  not  been  translated  are  mentioned  in 
French  or  German. 

PART  I 

CHAPTER  I 

SECTION 

i.  Edward  C.  Moore,  "  Some  Aspects  of  the  Relation  of  Missions 
to  Civilization,"  International  Review  of  Missions,  IV  (July, 

1015),  353-70. 

2.  Edward  C.  Moore,  "The  Naturalization  of  Christianity  in 
the  Far  East,"  Harvard  Theological  Review,  I  (July,  1908), 
249-303. 

3.  W.  M.  Ramsay,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  before  170 
A.D.  (1893),  esp.  chap,  ix,  pp.  171  ff.  A.  Harnack,  The 
Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity  in  the  First  Three 
Centuries  (1908),  esp.  Vol.  I.  L.  Duchesne,  The  Early 
History  of  the  Christian  Church  (1909),  esp.  Vol.  I,  chaps, 
xiv,  xx,  and  xxi. 

4.  Harnack,  The  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity  in  the 
First  Three  Centuries,  esp.  Book  III.  T.  R.  Glover,  The 
Conflict  of  Religions  in  the  Early  Roman  Empire  (1909),  esp. 
chaps,  vi  and  vii,  pp.  167-238.  Hastings'  Encyclopedia  of 
Religion  and  Ethics  (1908  fL),  article,  "Missions,  Early 
Christian  and  Mediaeval"  (by  C.  R.  Beazley),  VIII,  705. 
F.  C.  Burkitt,  Early  Eastern  Christianity  (1904).  F.  J.  Foakes 
Jackson,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  70  A.D.  461  (1914), 
chap,  xx,  pp.  542-56. 

7.  G.  F.  Maclear,  A  History  of  Christian  Missions  during  the 
Middle  Ages  (1898).  Cambridge  Mediaeval  History,  Vol.  I 
(191 1),  chap,  v,  pp.  87-114,  chaps,  xix-xx,  pp.  542-92;  Vol. 
II  (1913),  chap,  viii,  B,  pp.  236-61,  chap,  xvi,  A-B,  pp.  496- 

327 


328  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

541.  C.  Merivale,  The  Conversion  of  the  Northern  Nations 
(1866).  A.  C.  Flick,  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church  (1909), 
esp.  chap,  xii,  pp.  229s.  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Leaders  of  the 
Northern  Church  (1890),  pp.  1-102. 
9.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  chaps,  i-iii,  pp.  7-103. 
11.  K.  G.  Jayne,  Vasco  da  Gama  and  His  Successors,  1910.  O. 
Cary,  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  Vol.  I  (1909),  esp. 
chaps,  ii-iv,  pp.  28-82.  H.  Venn,  The  Missionary  Life  of 
Saint  Francis  Xavier  (1862). 

13.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  IV  (1906),  chap,  xxv,  pp. 
728-59;  Vol.  V  (1908),  chap,  xxii,  pp.  673-705. 

14.  G.  Warneck,  Outline  of  a  History  of  Protestant  Missions 
(1903),  pp.  1-84.  C.  H.  Robinson,  History  of  Christian 
Missions  (191 5),  chap,  iii,  pp.  42-60.  S.  Cheetham, 
History  of  the  Christian  Church  since  the  Reformation  (1907), 
pp.  112  fL,  121  ff.,  154  ff.  W.  H.  Hutton,  The  Age  of  the 
Revolution  (1908),  chap,  x,  pp.  131-60.  F.  X.  Funk,  Manual 
of  Church  History  (ed.  of  1910),  Vol.  II,  sees.  180,  210,  217. 
J.  Alzog,  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History  (1878),  Vol.  Ill, 
sees.  346-49.  J.  H.  Overton,  The  Evangelical  Revival  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (1886),  chap,  viii,  pp.  131-61.  J.  H. 
Overton,  The  English  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1894), 
chap,  viii,  pp.  253-94.  Louise  Creighton,  Missions,  Their 
Rise  and  Development  (Home  University  Library  of  Modern 
Knowledge)  (191 2). 

15.  Ramsay  Muir,  The  Expansion  of  Europe  (1917),  chaps,  ii-v, 
pp.  13-78.  J.  R.  Seelye,  The  Expansion  of  England  (1907), 
Lectures  I-VIII,  pp.  1-162. 

19.  W.  Cunningham,  The  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Com- 
merce (1903),  esp.  Vol.  II. 

20.  Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Vol.  II  (1902),  chap,  x,  pp.  130-279,  chap,  xii,  pp. 
329-456.  E.  C.  Moore,  History  of  Christian  Thought  since 
Kant  (191 2),  chap,  i,  pp.  1-38.  A.  C.  McGiffert,  The  Rise 
of  Modem  Religious  Ideas  (191 5),  Book  I,  pp.  5-60.  E.  C. 
Moore,  "The  Liberal  Movement  and  Missions,"  American 
Journal  of  Theology,  XVII  (January,  1913),  122-36.  "Mod- 
ern Liberalism  and  That  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  ibid. 


REFERENCES  329 

SECTION 

(January,  191 2),  XVI,  1-19.     J.  L.  Barton,  Human  Progress 
through  Missions  (19 12). 

chapter  n 

23.  C.  R.  Bcazley,  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography  (1897),  Part 
III. 

25.  H.  E.  Egerton,  A  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy 
(2d  ed.,  1908).  P.  P.  Leroy  Beaulicu,  De  la  colonization  chez 
les  peuples  modernes  (6th  ed.,  1908).  C.  P.  Lucas,  The 
Beginnings  of  English  Overseas  Enterprise  (191 7). 

28.  Sir  Alfred  Lyall,  The  Rise  and  Expansion  of  the  British 
Dominion  in  India  (1907),  pp.  82-261. 

29.  A.  G.  Bradley,  The  Fight  with  France  for  North  America,  esp. 
Part  I. 

30.  A.  Benn,  History  of  English  Rationalism  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  Vol.  I  (1906),  chaps,  ii-iii,  pp.  59-161. 

31.  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  Ill  (1905),  chap,  iv,  pp. 
104-81. 

32.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  pp.  48  £F. 

33.  E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I  (1907),  chap, 
vii,  p.  176,  chaps,  x-xv,  pp.  271-437. 

34.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XI  (1909),  chap,  xxvii,  pp. 
754-801;  Vol.  XII,  chap,  xxv,  pp.  792-815. 

chapter  in 

36.  J.  R.  Seelye,  The  Expansion  of  England  (1907),  esp.  pp.  1-140 
and  197-272.  Sir  Charles  W.  Dilke,  Greater  Britain  (8th  ed., 
1885).  Problems  of  Greater  Britain  (1890);  The  British 
Empire  (1899). 

37.  Purchas  his  Pilgrims  (ed.  1905-7),  Vols.  II,  III,  IV,  and  V. 
Griggs  (ed.),  Relics  of  the  Honorable  East  India  Company 
(1909). 

38.  A.  T.  Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History,  1660-17S3 
(24th  ed.,  1914),  Part  I. 

39.  W.  W.  Hunter,  The  Indian  Empire  (3d  ed.,  1893).  Ramsay 
Muir,  The  Expansion  of  Europe,  esp.  chap,  iii,  pp.  24-53. 
Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (ed.  1907-9),  Vol.  II. 


330  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

40.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XII,  chap,  xx,  pp.  602-71. 
H.  E.  Adams,  The  New  Map  of  Africa  (1916),  pp.  1-114, 
189-227,  and  391-480. 

42.  The  Earl  of  Durham,  Report  on  Canada  (1839)  (ed.  of  1902). 
G.  Cornwall  Lewis,  Essay  on  the  Government  of  Dependencies 
(1841)  (ed.  of  1891),  Part  I. 

43.  Goldwin  Smith,  The  Empire  (1863).  Cambridge  Modern 
History,  Vol.  XI,  chap,  xxvii,  pp.  754-801. 

44.  A.  Barry,  England's  Mission  to  India  (1894).  R.  B.  Smith, 
The  Life  of  Lord  Lawrence  (1885). 

47.  J.  S.  Dennis,  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,  i8q?- 
iqo6.  Count  Okuma  (ed.),  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan 
(1909),  esp.  Vol.  II,  chaps,  v,  vi,  viii,  xi,  xv,  xvii,  and  xxiv. 
E.  Pears,  Turkey  and  Its  People  (191 1).  G.  Washburn, 
Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople  (1909),  esp.  pp.  168-302. 

49.  A.  Lloyd,  The  Creed  of  Half  Japan  (191 2).  B.  Lucas,  Christ 
for  India  (1910).  J.  N.  Farquhar,  The  Crown  of  Hinduism 
(1913),  pp.  H-77- 

51.  G.  Warneck,  History  of  Protestant  Missions  (1903),  chap,  v, 
pp.  85-146.  E.  Stock,  History  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  esp.  Vol.  I  (1899).  W.  E.  Strong,  Story  of  the 
American  Board  (1910). 

56.  J.  Monson,  New  Ideas  in  India  (1907).  E.  Bevan,  Indian 
Nationalism  (1913). 

57.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XII,  chaps,  xiv-xv,  pp.  381- 

456. 

58.  Count  Okuma,  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan  (1909),  esp.  Vol.  I. 
S.  L.  Gulick,  The  Evolution  of  the  Japanese  (1905). 

60.  E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese  (1912),  pp.  216-345.  The 
Viceroy  Chang  Chi  Tung,  China's  Only  Hope  (1900). 

61.  S.  K.  Hornibeck,  Contemporary  Politics  in  the  Far  East  (1916), 
pp.  195-403.  P.  G.  Reinsch,  Intellectual  and  Political  Currents 
in  the  Far  East  (191 1),  Parts  II  and  IV;  World  Politics  (1900). 

63.  E.  C.  Moore,  "Naturalization  of  Christianity  in  the  Far 
East,"  Harvard  Theological  Review,  I  (July,  1908),  249-303. 
R.  H.  Maiden,  Foreign  Missions,  a  Study  of  Some  Principles 
and  Methods  in  the  Expansion  of  the  Christian  Church  (1910). 
O.  C.  Wilson,  The  Expansion  of  Christendom  (1913)- 


REFERENCES  331 

m  I  ion  CHAPTER  rv 

68.  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol  VII,  chaps,  i-iv,  pp.  1-143 
and  chap,  xxii,  pp.  687-722. 

69.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  X,  chaps,  vii-x,  pp.  205-339 
James  Bryce,  South  America  (191 2),  csp.  chaps,  xii-xvi,  pp 
423-585-     Hiram  Bingham,  Across  South  America  (191 1). 

71.  L.  W.  Bacon,  History  of  American  Christianity  (1899) 
H.  K.  Carroll,  The  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  States  (1912) 
Introduction,  Parts  III  and  IV. 

73.  W.  F.  Adeney,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches  (1908),  esp 
Part  II. 

74.  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  XII,  chaps,  xii-xiii,  pp.  294- 
380.  P.  Vinogradov,  Self -Government  in  Russia  (191 5). 
B.  Pares,  Russia  and  Reform  (1907),  esp.  Part  I.  A.  H. 
Hore,  Eighteen  Centuries  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  (1899), 
esp.  chaps,  xvi-xviii,  pp.  580-693.  K.  P.  Pobiedonostsev, 
Reflections  of  a  Russian  Statesman  (trans,  by  R.  C.  Long, 
1898). 

75.  W.  R.  Morfil,  Russia  (1891).  A.  Krausse,  Russia  in  Asia 
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Expansion  of  Russia,  181 5-1  goo  (1903). 

77-0.  Cary,  A  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan  (1909),  Vol.  I, 
Part  II,  pp.  375-423. 

CHAPTER  V 

78.  W.  B.  du  Bois,  Suppression  of  the  African  Slave  Trade  to  the 
United  States  (1896).  H.  H.  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New 
World  (1910). 

79.  G.  M.  Theal,  History  and  Ethnography  of  South  Africa  to  1795 
(1907-10). 

80.  C.  P.  Lucas,  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies,  esp. 
Vol.  IV.  J.  Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa  (189S),  pp. 
99-187. 

81.  D.  Livingstone,  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa  (1842)  (ed.  of  191 2).  R.  Moffatt,  Missionary  Labours 
and  Scenes  in  South  Africa  (1842).  J.  M.  Speke,  Journal  of 
the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile  ( 1 864) .  H.  M.  Stanley, 
In  Darkest  Africa  (1890).  H.  H.  Johnston,  George  Grenfell 
and  the  Congo  (1908);  Livingstone  (1891). 


332  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 


SECTION 


82.  J.  S.  Keltie,  Partition  of  Africa  (1895).  H.  E.  Gibbons,  The 
New  Map  of  Africa  (191 6). 

84.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XII,  chap,  xv,  pp.  429-56. 
F.  R.  Wingate,  Mahdism  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (1891). 
A.  E.  Hake,  The  Journals  of  General  Gordon  at  Kartoum, 
(1885).  The  Earl  of  Cromer,  Modern  Egypt  (1908),  Vol.  II, 
pp.  123-244. 

85.  H.  H.  Johnston,  A  History  of  the  Colonization  of  Africa  by 
Alien  Races  (1905),  Part  I. 


CHAPTER   VI 

87.  H.  C.  King,  The  Moral  and  Religious  Challenge  of  Our 
Time  (191 1).  J.  S.  Dennis,  The  Modern  Call  of  Missions 
(19 1 3).  J.  N.  Farquhar,  Modern  Religious  Movements  in 
India  (1915).  J.  P.  Jones,  India's  Problem  (1903).  J.  B. 
Pratt,  India  and  Its  Faiths  (1915),  esp.  pp.  360-475. 

91.  E.  C.  Moore,  "The  Liberal  Movement  and  Missions," 
American  Journal  of  Theology  (January,  1913). 

94.  G.  A.  Barton,  The  Religions  of  the  World  (1918).  C.  H.  Toy, 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  Religions  (1913).  G.  F.  Moore, 
History  of  Religions  (1913),  Vol.  I.  G.  Galloway,  The 
Principles  of  Religious  Development  (1909). 

96.  Auguste  Sabatier,  Religions  of  Authority  and  the  Religion  of 
the  Spirit  (1904).  A.  Harnack,  What  Is  Christianity  ?  (1901). 
A.  Loisy,  The  Gospel  and  the  Church  (1909). 

99.  F.  G.  Peabody,  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question  (1900); 
Jesus  Christ  and  the  Christian  Character  (1905);  The  Chris- 
tian Life  in  the  Modern  World  (1914). 

101.  R.  F.  Littledale  and  E.  Taunton,  article,  "Jesuits,"  in 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.,  191 1),  XV,  337  ff. 
A.  W.  Ward,  The  Counter  Reformation  (1888),  pp.  31  ff. 
Genelli,  Life  of  Saint  Ignatius  Loyola,  1872.  Cambridge 
Modern  History,  Vol.  II  (1911),  chap,  xviii,  pp.  6390". 
Catholic  Encyclopedia  (1907-14),  article,  "Propaganda, 
Sacred  Congregation  of  The,"  XII,  456  ff . ;  also  article, 
"Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,"  XIV,  79  ff. 


REFERENCES  333 

SECTION 

102.  H.  Coleridge,  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier 
(1872).  K.  G.  Jayne,  Vasco  da  Gama  and  His  Successors 
(19 10),  chaps,  xxv-xxxii. 

103.  E.  Stock  et  al.,  article,  "Missions,"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 
(nth  ed.,  iqii),  XVIII,  590  fl.  C.  Streit,  Atlas  hierarchicus, 
Descriptio  Geographica  et  statistica  s.  Rom.  eccl.  (19 13). 
Missiones  Catholicae  ritus  latini  cura  S.  Cong,  de  Prop.  Fid. 
descriptae  (biennial  review)  (1886  and  following).  K.  Streit, 
Katholische  Missions-Statistik  (1908).  Lou  vet,  Les  Missions 
Catholiques  au  XlXme  Steele  (1900). 

104.  C.  H.  Robinson,  A  History  of  Christian  Missions  (191 5),  pp. 
477  ff.  G.  Warneck,  History  of  Protestant  Missions,  pp.  85- 
144.  H.  P.  Beach  and  B.  St.  John,  World  Statistics  of 
Christian  Missions  (191 6),  pp.  15  ff.  C.  F.  Pascoe,  Two 
Hundred  Years  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
( 1 90 1 ) .  Digest  of  the  Records  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel,  iyoi-i8g2  (1893).  E.  Stock,  History  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  i8gg-igi6.  G.  G.  Findlay, 
Wesley's  World  Parish;  A  Hundred  Years'  Work  of  the 
Wesley  an  Methodist  Missionary  Society  (1913). 

105.  J.  B.  Myers,  Centenary  Volume  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  (1892).  R.  Lovett,  History  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  (1899). 

106.  H.  Pearson,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Correspondence  of  C.  F. 
Schwartz  (1834).  G.  Warneck,  History  of  Protestant 
Missions,  Part  I,  chap,  iii,  pp.  53-73.  J.  Richter,  History  of 
Missions  in  India  (1908). 

107.  G.  Holmes,  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Missions  of  the  United 
Brethren  (1888).  A.  C.  Thompson,  Moravian  Missions 
(1882).     W.  Schlatter,  Geschichte  der  Baseler  Mission  (1916). 

108.  A.  C.  Thompson,  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  American 
Board,  The  Oriental  Churches  (1872);  India  (1874),  etc.; 
Sandwich  Islands  (1870).  E.  Judson,  The  Life  of  Adoniram 
Judson  (1898).  E.  F.  Merriam,  The  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union  and  Its  Missions  (1897). 

109.  H.  B.  Montgomery,  Western  Women  in  Eastern  Lands  (1910). 
E.  C.  Parsons,  "History  of  Woman's  Organized  Missionary 
Work  as  Promoted  by  American  Women,"  in  Woman  in 


334  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

Missions  (1894),  p.  83.  A.  Van  Sommer  and  S.  M.  Zwemer, 
Our  Moslem  Sisters  (1907).  H.  S.  Dyer,  Pandita  Ramabai 
(1900).  F.  L.  Nichols,  Lilavati  Snigh  (1909).  M.  E.  Burton, 
Notable  Women  of  Modern  China  (191 2).  Pandita  Ramabai 
Sarasvati,  The  High  Caste  Hindu  Woman  (1888).  M.  E. 
Burton,  Women  Workers  of  the  Orient  (1918).  S.  L.  Gulick. 
Working  Women  of  Japan  (1915).  E.  P.  Gordon,  Alice 
Gordon  Gulick  (191 7).  John  Jackson,  Mary  Reed,  Missionary 
to  the  Lepers  (1899).  W.  P.  Livingstone,  Mary  Slessor  of 
Calabar  (1916).  M.  G.  Cowan,  The  Education  of  Women  in 
India  (191 2).  M.  E.  Burton,  The  Education  of  Women  in 
China  (191 1);  The  Education  of  Women  in  Japan  (19 14). 
D.  Kikuchi,  Japanese  Education  (1909),  pp.  255-81. 

1 10.  J.  Williams,  Life  of  Sir  George  Williams  (1906).  R.  C.  Morse, 
History  of  the  North  American  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation (1913).  John  R.  Mott,  Evangelization  of  the  World  in 
This  Generation  (1900);  The  Decisive  Hour  of  Christian 
Missions  (1910);   The  Present  World  Situation  (1914). 

112.  W.  Canton,  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
(1904).  H.  O.  Dwight,  The  Centennial  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society  (1916).  E.  C.  Moore,  "Bible  Societies  and 
Missions,  Their  Joint  Contribution  to  Race  Development," 
Journal  of  Race  Development,  VII  (July,  1916),  No.  1,  p.  47. 


PART  II 

3ECXKK  CHAPTER  vn 

114.  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  (19 16),  pp.  121-70,  also  p.  109. 
W.  W.  Hunter  and  John  Sutherland  Cotton,  article,  "India," 
section,  "History,"  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  ed., 
1910)  XIV,  401  ff.  A.  Lyall,  The  Rise  and  Expansion  of  the 
British  Dominion  in  India  (1907),  pp.  1-96.  R.  Muir,  The 
Expansion  of  Europe  (191 7),  esp.  pp.  1-77.  J.  R.  Seelye, 
The  Expansion  of  England  ( 1 907) ,  pp.  1-2 1 6.  W.  W.  Hunter, 
The  Indian  Empire  (1895).  J.  Richter,  History  of  Missions 
in  India  (1908),  Part  I.  Catholic  Encyclopedia  (1907-14), 
article,  "Francis  Xavier"  (by  A.  Astrain),  VI,  233;  article, 
"Society  of  Jesus"  (by  J.  H.  Pollen),  XIV,  81-110. 
Hastings'  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics  (1908  ff.), 
article,  "Missions,"  section,  "Roman  Catholic  Missions" 
(by  M.  Spitz),  VIII,  705  ff.  L.  J.  M.  Cros,  Saint  Francois  de 
Xavier,  sa  vie  et  ses  lettres  (1900),  Vol.  I.  R.  P.  Bron,  Saint 
Francois  de  Xavier  (191 2). 

116.  Hastings'  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics  (19081?.), 
article,  "Missions,"  section,  "Protestant  Missions"  (by  H.  N. 
Weitbrecht),  VIII,  727  ff.  Cambridge  Modern  History, 
Vol.  I  (1903),  chap,  i,  pp.  7-36.  The  New  Schaf-Herzog 
Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge  (1908  ff.),  article, 
"Missions,  Protestant"  (by  G.  Warneck),  VII,  395  (for 
Plutschau,  Zicgenbalg,  and  Schwartz). 

117.  B.  Willson,  Ledger  and  Sword  (1903),  Vol.  I.  G.  Birdwood, 
Report  on  the  Old  Records  of  the  India  Office  (1879).  Lyall, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  138-264.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  VI, 
chap,  xv,  pp.  506-85.  C.  Wilson,  Clive  (1890).  A.  C.  Lyall, 
Warren  Hastings  (1902). 

118.  C.  F.  Pascoe,  Two  Hundred  Years  of  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  (1901).  E.  Stock,  History  of  tlie  Church 
Missionary  Society  (1899),  Vol.  I.  A.  Heber,  The  Life  of 
Reginald  Heber  (1830).  S.  Wilberforce  (ed.),  Journals  and 
Letters  of  Henry  Martyn  (1837). 

335 


336  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

119.  G.  Smith,  The  Life  of  William  Carey  (1887).  J.  C.  Marsh- 
man,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Carey, Mar  shman  and  Ward  (1859). 

120.  G.  Smith,  The  Life  of  Alexander  Duff  (1900).  J.  Richter, 
History  of  Missions  in  India,  Part  I,  pp.  173-201.  A.  Duff, 
India  and  India  Missions  (1840). 

121.  W.  E.  Strong,  Story  of  the  American  Board  (1910),  pp.  17-34. 
W.  A.  Clark  (ed.),  Centennial  Report  of  the  American  Marathi 
Mission  (1904).    R.  Anderson,  History  of  the  Missions  of  the 

American  Board  in  India  (1874). 

122.  A.  C.  Lyall,  British  Dominion  in  India  (1905),  pp.  300-348. 
Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  XI  (1909),  chap,  xxvi,  pp. 
724-53.  D.  C.  Boulger,  Lord  William  Bentinck  (1892). 
W.  W.  Hunter,  The  Marquess  of  Dalhousie  (1890). 

123.  T.  Rice-Holmes,  History  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  (1904).  H.  B. 
Edwards  and  H.  Merivale,  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  (1872). 
R.  B.  Smith,  Life  of  Lord  John  Lawrence  (1883).  J.  C. 
Marshman,  Memoirs  of  Sir  Henry  Havelock  (i860). 

128.  B.  Lucas,  Christ  for  India  (1910).  J.  N.  Farquhar,  The 
Crown  of  Hinduism  (1913),  pp.  1-185.  R.  A.  Hume, 
Missimis  from  the  Modern  View  (1905).  J.  P.  Jones,  India's 
Problem  (1905).  V.  S.  Azariah,  India  and  Missions  (1908). 
D.  J.  Fleming,  Devolution  in  Mission  Administration  (1916). 

129.  The  Year  Book  of  Missions  in  India  (1916).  The  Catholic 
Directory  for  India  (1914).  The  Church  in  the  Mission  Field, 
Report  of  Commission  II  to  the  Edinburgh  Conference  (1910). 
H.  P.  Beach  and  B.  St.  John,  World  Statistics  of  Christian 
Missions  (191 4),  p.  65. 

131.  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  Education  in  India  (1899).  Indian  Edu- 
cation in  iqi 3-14,  Government  of  India,  Department  of  Educa- 
tion (1915).  M.  G.  Cowan,  The  Education  of  Women  in  India. 
(191 2).  Christian  Education,  Report  of  Commission  III  to  the 
Edinburgh  Conference  (1 910),  pp.  ioff.  H.  P.  Beach  and  B.  St. 
John,  World  Statistics  of  Christian  Missions  (1916),  pp.  80  ff. 

132.  E.  Bevan,  Indian  Nationalism  (1913).  J.  Monson,  New 
Ideas  in  India  (1907).  J.  L.  Barton,  Human  Progress  through 
Missions  (191 2).  J.  S.  Dennis,  Christian  Missions  and  Social 
Progress,  I,  77  ff.;  II,  20  ff.;  Ill,  104  ff.  E.  W.  Capen, 
Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands  (19 14). 


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SECTION 

I33-  J-  N.  Farquhar,  Modern  Religious  Movements  in  India  (191 5) ; 
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Religion  and  Ethics,  II,  813.  Hem  Chander  Sarkar,  The 
Rcligio-n  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  (191 1).  Syed  Amur  Ali,  The 
Spirit  of  Islam  (1902).  B.  Lucas,  The  Empire  of  Christ 
(1907). 

CHAPTER   Vm 

134.  Statesman's  Year  Book  (19 16),  pp.  1095-1117.  Count  Okuma 
(ed.),  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan  (1909),  esp.  I,  1-193.  Cam- 
bridge Modern  History,  Vol.  XI  (1909),  chap,  xxviii  (2),  pp. 
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ed.,  191 1),  XV,  252  ff.  W.  E.  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire, 
(nth  ed.,  1906).  O.  Cary,  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration 
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(1900). 

135.  O.  Cary,  The  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan  (1009),  I, 
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China  and  Japan.  J.  M.  Cros,  St.  Franqois  de  Xavier,  sa  vie 
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138.  Murdoch  and  Yamagata,  History  of  Japan  during  the  Century 
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140.  Kinse  Shireaku,  A  History  of  Japan  from  18 53-1869  (trans, 
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(1895). 

141.  S.  Shimada,  in  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,  Vol.  I,  chap,  iii, 
pp.  71-92,  and  Soyeshima,  chap,  iv,  pp.  93-121.  I.  Nitobe, 
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142.  0.  Cary,  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  I,  258  ff.  Mamas, 
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144.  M.  L.  Gordon,  Thirty  Eventful  Years  in  Japan  (1907);  An 
American  Missionary  in  Japan  (1893).  W.  E.  Griffis, 
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'  338  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

144.  A.  S.  Hardy,  Joseph  Hardy  Neesima  (1892).  J.  D.  Davis, 
A  Maker  of  New  Japan  (19 14). 

145.  S.  Okuma,  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,  esp.  Vol.  II,  "Religion," 
pp.  22-112,  "Education,"  pp.  134-306,  "Literature,"  pp. 
390-442,  "Social  Changes,"  pp.  443-512.  D.  Kikuchi, 
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147.  O.  Cary,  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  II,  45-349.  K. 
Uchimura,  The  Diary  of  a  Japanese  Convert  (1896).  Ritter, 
History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  Japan,  the  early  numbers 
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148.  S.  L.  Gulick,  "Religious  Liberty  during  the  Meiji  Era," 
Japan  Evangelist  (September,  191 2),  pp.  432-40. 

149.  S.  Okuma,  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,  Vol.  II,  "Medicine," 
chaps,  xv  and  xvi,  pp.  285-306.  W.  E.  Griffis,  Hepburn  of 
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150.  S.  Okuma,  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,  Vol.  II,  "Philan- 
thropy," p.  101. 

155.  The  Christian  Movement  in  the  Japanese  Empire  (191 7). 
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(1912). 

156.  W.  Imbrie,  "The  Three  Religions  Conference,"  Japan 
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man's View  of  Christianity,"  International  Review  of  Missions 
(October,  191 2),  pp.  654-58. 


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CHAPTER  DC 

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157.  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  (1916),  pp.  785-807.  Cambridge 
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158.  De  Groot,  The  Religion  oj  the  Chinese  (1910),  pp.  62-88. 

159.  E.  H.  Parker,  China,  Her  History,  Diplomacy  and  Commerce 
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160.  H.  B.  Morse,  International  Relations  oj  the  Chinese  Empire, 
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161.  T.  T.  Meadows,  The  Chinese  and  Their  Rebellions  (1856). 
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162.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XII  (1910),  chap,  xxii,  pp. 
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163.  E.  Morrison,  Robert  Morrison  (1839).  H.  E.  Legge,  James 
Legge,  Missionary  and  Scholar  (1905).  W.  Lockhart,  A 
Medical  Missionary  in  China  (autobiographical,  1861).  See 
the  historical  sketches  at  the  heads  of  the  paragraphs  in 
A  Century  oj  Missions  in  China,  edited  by  D.  McGillivray, 
the  Morrison  Centenary  Volume  (1907). 

164.  W.  Lockhart,  A  Medical  Missionary  in  China. 

165.  The  Chinese  Empire:  A  General  and  Missionary  Survey 
(1907);  M.  Broomhall,  The  Jubilee  History  oj  the  China 
Inland  Mission  (1904).  F.  Howard  Taylor,  These  Fijiy 
Years,  a  Memoir  oj  Hudson  Taylor  (1903). 


340  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

166.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  A  Cycle  of  Cathay  (1897).    J.  C.  Gibson, 

Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in  South  China  (1901). 
J.  Ross,  Mission  Methods  in  Manchuria  (1903).  A.  H.  Smith, 
Village  Life  in  China  (1899).  D.  Fisher,  C.  W.  Mateer  (191 1). 
Dugald  Christie,  Thirty  Years  at  Mukden  (autobiography;  ed. 
by  his  wife,  1914). 

167.  J.  Bredon,  Sir  Robert  Hart,  The  Romance  of  a  Great  Career 
(1909). 

169.  A.  H.  Smith,  China  in  Convulsion  (1901).  L.  Miner,  China's 
Book  of  Martyrs  (1903).  M.  Broomhall,  Martyred  Mission- 
aries, China  Inland  Mission  (1901). 

170.  L.  Ngao-Siang  Tchou,  Le  regime  des  capitulations  et  la  rtforme 
constitutionelle  en  Chine  (191 5).  S.  K.  Hornibeck,  Con- 
temporary Politics  in  the  Far  East  (19 16).  P.  Reinsch, 
Intellectual  and  Political  Currents  in  the  Far  East  (191 1). 

171.  A.  E.  Moule,  Half  a  Century  in  China  (1911).  H.  D.  Porter, 
W.  S.  Anient,  Missionary  of  the  American  Board  (191 1). 
Lin  Shao  Yang  (nom  de  plume;  the  author  is  a  foreign 
resident  in  China),  A  Chinese  Appeal  to  Christendom  (191 1). 
C.  E.  Scott,  China  from  within,  Impressions  and  Experiences 

(1917)- 

172.  Kuo  Ping  Wen,   The  Chinese  System  of  Public  Education 

(191 5).  T.  Lee  Fong,  Government  Education  in  China  (19 16). 
C.  T.  Wang  and  Others,  "Industrial  Education  in  China 
Today,"  Chinese  Recorder  (March,  1914),  p.  139.  M.  E. 
Burton,  The  Education  of  Women  in  China  (191 1);  Notable 
Women  of  Modern  China  (191 2). 

173.  "The  Rockefeller  Foundation  and  Medical  Education  in 
China,"  Chinese  Recorder  (1905),  pp.  663-704.  "Medicine  in 
China,"  by  the  China  Medical  Commission  of  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation  (1914).  R.  Fletcher  Moorshead,  The  Appeal 
of  Medical  Missions.  A.  J.  Costain,  Life  of  Dr.  Arthur 
Jackson  (191 1). 

174.  T.  Richard,  Forty-five  Years  in  China  (1916). 

175.  China  Mission  Year  Book  (19 16).  The  Chinese  Church, 
Findings  of  the  National  Conference,  Shanghai  (19 13). 
J.  M.  Planchet,  Les  missions  de  Chine  et  du  Japon  (1916). 
Reports  from  His  Majesty's  Minister  at  Peking  Respecting  the 


REFERENCES  341 

SECTION 

Opium  Question  in  China  (1913).  J.  W.  Bashford,  China,  an 
Interpretation  (1916).  A  Decade  of  Progress  in  China  (from 
the  China  Mission  Year  Book  of  1917,  pp.  63-283). 

chapter  x 

176.  Sir  William  Muir,  The  Life  of  Mohammed  (abridged  ed., 
1868).  M.  Townsend,  "The  Great  Arabian,"  in  Asia  and 
Europe  (1901).  Hastings'  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and 
Ethics,  article,  "Missions,  Mohammedan"  (by  T.  W.  Arnold), 
VIII,  745  ff.  T.  W.  Arnold,  The  Preaching  of  Islam  (1913). 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.,  1911),  article,  "Turks" 
(by  C.  Eliot),  XXVII,  468-73.  R.  Lodge,  The  Close  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  1273-14Q4  (1906).  D.  Westermann  and  S.  M. 
Zwemer,  "A  New  Statistical  Survey  of  the  Moslem  Popula- 
tion of  the  World,"  Moslem  World  (April,  1914),  pp.  145-56. 

177.  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  (19 14),  "Turkey,"  pp.  1344-60. 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  chap,  hi,  pp.  67-103, 
"The  Ottoman  Conquest"  (by  J.  B.  Bury);  also  Vol.  Ill, 
chap,  iv,  pp.  104-39;  Vol.  V,  chap,  xii,  pp.  338-71;  Vol.  X, 
chap,  vi,  pp.  169-204,  chap,  xvii,  pp.  545-72.  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,  article,  "Turkey,  History,"  XXVII,  442-65. 
Lane-Poole,  Turkey  ("Story  of  the  Nations  Series,"  1888). 
W.  M.  Ramsay,  Historical  Geography  of  Asia  Minor  (1890). 
Cambridge  Mediaeval  History,  Vol.  I  (191 1),  chap,  xii,  pp. 
323-59,  "The  Asiatic  Background"  (by  T.  Peisker).  G.  A. 
Smith,  The  Holy  Land  (1918). 

178.  W.  F.  Adeney,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches  (1908),  esp. 
Part  II,  Div.  IV,  pp.  459-626.  A.  H.  Hore,  Eighteen 
Centuries  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  (1899),  chaps,  vii-x, 
pp.  242-363.     T.  E.  Dowling,  The  Armenian  Church  (1910). 

179.  E.  A.  Freeman,  History  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens  (ed. 
1877),  PP-  64-198.  M.  J.  de  Goeje,  article,  "Caliphate,"  in 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (1910),  V,  23-54.  W.  F.  Adeney, 
The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches  (1908),  Vol.  I,  chap,  vii;  Vol. 
II,  chap,  vi,  pp.  85-241. 

180.  E.  S.  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  (ed.  of  1882). 
E.  A.  Freeman,  The  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe  (1877).  A.  H. 
Lybyer,  The  Government  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  the  Time  of 
Suleiman  the  Magnificent  (19 13). 


342  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

182.  A.  H.  Hore,  Eighteen  Centuries  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church 
(1899),  chap,  xv,  pp.  532-79,  and  chap,  xviii,  pp.  659-93. 

183.  W.  E.  Strong,  Story  of  the  American  Board  (1910),  chap,  v, 
pp.  56-79,  chap,  x,  pp.  196-226,  chap,  xxi,  pp.  385-412.  R. 
Anderson,  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  American  Board,  The 
Ottoman  Empire  (1872).  J.  Richter,  A  History  of  Protestant 
Missions  in  the  Near  East  (19 10),  pp.  104-329.  G.  F. 
Herrick,  Christian  and  Mohammedan  (191 2).  J.  K.  Greene, 
Leavening  the  Levant  (1916).  A.  Watson,  The  American 
Mission  in  Egypt. 

184.  F.  H.  B.  Lynch,  Armenia,  Travels  and  Studies  (1901).  J. 
Bryce,  Transcaucasia,  with  a  supplement  on  the  Armenian 
question  (1896).  E.  M.  Bliss,  Turkey  and  the  Armenian 
Atrocities  (1896). 

185.  H.  0.  Dwight,  A  Moslem  Sir  Galahad  (1913). 

186.  C.  Hamlin,  Among  the  Turks  (1877).  C.  Hamlin,  My  Life 
and  Times  (1893).  G.  Washburn,  Fifty  Years  in  Constan- 
tinople (1910).  H.  O.  Dwight,  Constantinople  and  Its 
Problems  (1901).     E.  Pears,  Turkey  and  Its  People  (1912). 

188.  H.  H.  Jessup,  Fifty-three  Years  in  Syria  (1910). 

190.  C.  D.  Ussher  and  G.  H.  Knapp,  An  American  Physician  in 
Turkey  (19 17). 

191.  J.  L.  Barton,  Daybreak  in  Turkey  (1908). 

192.  W.  Miller,  The  Balkans  ("Story  of  the  Nations  Series," 
1908).  M.  E.  Durham,  The  Burden  of  the  Balkans  (1905). 
Vladislav  R.  Savic,  Southeastern  Europe  (191 8).  L. 
Dominian,  The  Frontiers  of  Language  and  Nationality  in 
Europe  (191 7). 

193.  M.  C.  Gabriellian,  Armenia,  a  Martyr  Nation  (19 18).  H.  A. 
Gibbons,  The  Blackest  Page  in  Modern  History  (19 16). 

194.  G.  F.  Abbott,  Turkey  in  Transition  (1909).  G.  Baker, 
Passing  of  the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe  (1912).  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  The  Revolution  in  Constantinople  and  Turkey  (1909). 

195.  V.  Chirol,  " Islam  and  the  War,"  Quarterly  Review  (April, 
1918),  pp.  489-515- 

197.  A.  M.  Pennell,  Pennell  of  the  Afghan  Frontier  (1914). 

198.  J.  Bryce,  Transcaucasia,  1896.  0.  M.  Sykes,  A  History  of 
Persia    (191 5).     R.    C.    Schauffler,    The   Goodly   Fellowship 


REFERENCES  343 

SECTION 

(191 2).  Y.  B.  Mirza,  Iran  and  the  Iranians  (1913).  R.  E. 
Speer,  The  Haki  Sahib,  the  Foreign  Doctor;  Biography  of 
Joseph  Plumb  Cochrane  of  Persia  (191 1). 

199.  A.  Milner,  England  in  Egypt  (1893).  The  Earl  of  Cromer, 
Modern  Egypt  (1908).  D.  G.  Hogarth,  The  Penetration  of 
Arabia  (1904).  S.  M.  Zwemer,  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam 
(1902).  G.  A.  Smith,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land 
(ed.  1897).  G.  Le  Strange,  Palestine  under  the  Moslems 
(1890).  G.  A.  Smith,  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land  (1918).  R. 
Tinker,  Memorials  of  the  Hon.  Ion  Keith  Falconer  (1903). 

200.  E.  M.  Wherry  and  S.  M.  Zwemer,  Islam  and  Missions:  The 
Lucknow  Conference  (191 1).  S.  M.  Zwemer,  The  Disin- 
tegration of  Islam  (191 1).  D.  B.  McDonald,  Moslem  Theol- 
ogy, Jurisprudence  and  Constitutional  Theory  (1903);  Aspects 
of  Islam  (191 1).  W.  H.  T.  Gairdner,  "Al  Hazar  University 
at  Cairo,"  East  and  West  (July,  191 1),  pp.  256-73.  D.  T. 
Margouliouth,  Pan-Islamism,  Proceedings  of  the  Central  Asian 
Society  (191 2).  D.  B.  McDonald,  "Missions  to  Moslems," 
International  Review  of  Missions  (July,  1912),  pp.  526-34. 
E.  Pears,  "Christians  and  Islam  in  Turkey,"  Nineteenth 
Century  (February,  1913),  pp.  278-91.  H.  S.  Bliss,  "The 
Balkan  War  and  Christian  Work  among  Moslems,"  Inter- 
national Review  of  Missions  (October,  19 13),  pp.  643-56. 

CHAPTER  XI 

201.  See  previous  chapters,  references  to  sees.  1  and  25.  Cam- 
bridge Modern  History,  Vol.  XII  (1910),  chap,  xv,  pp.  429-56, 
chap,  xx,  pp.  602-71,  passim.  D.  A.  Cameron,  Egypt  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century  (until  1882)  (1898),  Part  II.  E.  Dicey, 
The  Story  of  the  Khedivate  (1902).  C.  de  Freycinet,  La 
question  d'Egypte  (1905),  chaps,  ii  and  iii.  P.  Legendre,  La 
Conquete  de  la  France  Africaine  (1904).  H.  Lorin,  La  France 
puissance  coloniale  (1906);  VAfrique  du  Nord  (190S). 
Catholic  Encyclopedia,  article,  "Lavigerie."  C.  B.  Watson, 
The  Sorrow  and  Hope  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan  (19 13);  In  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile  (1900).  W.  H.  T.  Gairdner,  D.  M.  Thorn- 
ton (1908).  A.  E.  Hake,  The  Journals  of  Major -General 
Gordon  at  Khartoum  (1885). 


344  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

202.  H.  A.  Gibbons,  The  New  Map  of  Africa  (1916).  C.  P.  Lucas, 
Geography  of  South  and  East  Africa  (being  Part  II  of  Vol.  IV 
of  "  An  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies,"  1904). 
Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  XII,  chap,  xx,  esp.  pp.  635- 
51  and  658-65.  E.  Sanderson,  Great  Britain  in  Modern 
Africa  (1907).  A.  R.  Colquohoun,  Afrikanderland  (1906). 
R.  Markham,  The  New  Era  in  South  Africa  (1904).  H.  von 
Treitschke,  Die  ersten  Versuche  deutscher  kolonial  politik, 
Prcussische  Jahrbiicher,  Band  54.  H.  von  Biilow,  Deutsch- 
lands  Kolonien  und  kolonial  Kriege  (1900).  W.  H.  Dawson, 
The  Evolution  of  Modern  Germany  (1908),  Part  III.  E. 
Hertslet,  The  Map  of  Africa  by  Treaty  (1909).  H.  H.  John- 
ston, The  Colonization  of  Africa  (ed.  of  1913).  E.  Vander- 
velde,  Les  derniers  jours  de  Vetat  du  Congo  (1909).  The 
Cong.  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  Appointed  by 
the  Congo  Free  State  Government  (translation,  1906). 
E.  Vandervelde,  La  Belgique  et  le  Congo  (191 1). 

203.  F.  A.  Noble,  The  Redemption  of  Africa  (1898).  R.  Moffat, 
Missionary  Labours  and  Scenes  in  South  Africa  (1842).  D. 
Livingstone,  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South 
Africa,  1842  (ed.  191 2).  W.  D.  Mackenzie,  John  Mackenzie 
(1902).  J.  L.  Krapf,  Travels,  Explorations  and  Missionary 
Labours  during  Our  Eighteen  Years'  Residence  in  Eastern 
Africa  (i860).  F.  Coillard,  On  the  Threshold  of  Central 
Africa  (translation,  1903).  C.  H.  Lyall,  Twenty  Years  in 
Khama's  Country  (1896).  J.  Tyler,  Forty  Years  among  the 
Zulus  (1891).  T.  T.  Matthews,  Thirty  Years  in  Madagascar 
(1904).  G.  W.  Cox,  The  Life  of  J.  A.  Colenso  (1888).  C.  F. 
A.  Moss,  A  Pioneer  in  Madagascar:  J.  Pearse  (1913). 

204.  F.  D.  Lugard,  The  Rise  of  Our  East  African  Empire  (1893). 
H.  H.  Johnston,  The  Uganda  Protectorate  (1902).  E.  D. 
Morel,  Afairs  in  West  Africa  (1902).  H.  R.  Brand,  The 
Union  of  South  Africa  (1904).  H.  E.  S.  Fremantle,  The  New 
Nation  (1909).  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Education  Commission 
Reports,  etc.  (191 2). 

205.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XII  (1910),  chap,  xxv,  pp. 
805-13.  J.  L.  Krapf,  Travels,  Explorations  and  Missionary 
Labours  during  Our  Eighteen   Years'  Residence  in  Eastern 


REFERENCES  345 

SECTION 

Africa  (i860).  R.  Burton,  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa 
(i860).  D.  Livingstone,  Last  Journals  (1874).  G.  Schwefh- 
furth,  The  Heart  of  Africa  (1873).  J.  M.  Speke,  Journal  of 
the  Discovery  of  the  Sources  of  the  Nile  (1 864) .  H.  M.  Stanley, 
Through  the  Dark  Continent  (1878).  D.  Stanley  (ed.),  The 
Autobiography  of  Henry  M.  Stanley  (1909). 

206.  D.  Livingstone,  Last  Journals  (1874).  H.  M.  Stanley,  How 
I  Found  Livingstone  (1872).  W.  G.  Blaikie,  The  Personal 
Life  of  David  Livingstone  (1880). 

207.  A.  R.  Tucker,  Eighteen  Years  in  Uganda  and  East  Africa 
(190S).  J.  D.  Mullins,  The  Wonderful  Story  of  Uganda 
(1904).  A.  E.  Morshead,  History  of  the  Universities  Mission 
to  Central  Africa,  1859-1896.  C.  E.  Battersby,  Pilkington 
of  Uganda  (1899).  W.  G.  Berry,  Bishop  Hannington  (1908). 
J.  W.  Harrison,  Mackay  of  Uganda  (1900).  G.  Hawker,  The 
Life  of  George  Grenfell  (1909).  C.  W.  Mackintosh,  Coillard 
of  the  Zambesi  (1907).  E.  Favre,  Franqois  Coillard,  mission- 
aire  au  Zambezi  (1913).  J.  Taylor  Hamilton,  Twenty  Years 
of  Pioneer  Missions  in  Nyassaland  (191 2).  A.  P.  Atterbury, 
Islam  in  Africa  (1899). 

208.  J.  Page,  The  Black  Bishop  (1908).  A.  H.  Barrow,  Fifty  Years 
in  Western  Africa  (1900).  Jean  R.  Mackenzie,  Black  Sheep, 
Adventures  in  West  Africa  (191 6).  E.  G.  Ingham,  Sierre 
Leone  after  a  Hundred  Years  (1894). 

209.  H.  M.  Stanley,  The  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  Its  Free  State 
(1885).  E.  D.  Morel,  King  Leopold's  Rule  in  Africa  (1904). 
W.  H.  Bentley,  Pioneering  in  the  Congo  (1900).  A.  Hinderer, 
Seventeen  Years  in  the  Yoruba  Country  (1S72).  C.  H. 
Robinson,  Ilausaland  (1897).  J.  H.  Weeks,  Among  Congo 
Cannibals  (191 2).  G.  Ward,  Charles  Allen  Smythies,  Bishop 
of  the  Universities  Mission  to  Central  Africa  (1898).  (Mrs.) 
A.  B.  Fisher,  Twilight  Tales  of  the  Black  Boganda  (191 1). 
Les  deux  Congo,  trente  cinq  ans  d'apostolat  au  Congo  franqais, 
Mgr.  Augcnard,  etc.  (1913). 

210.  J.  du  Plessis,  The  History  of  Christian  Missions  in  South 
Africa.  C.  N.  Gray,  Robert  Gray,  Bishop  of  Cape  Town 
(1882).  J.  S.  Moffat,  Robert  and  Mary  Mojffat  (1896).  M.  S. 
Benham,  Henry  Calloway,  First  Bishop  of  Kajfraria  (1896). 


346  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

Donald  Fraser,  Winning  a  Primitive  People  (the  Ngoni) 
(1914).  H.  W.  Barker,  The  Story  of  Chisamba  (1905).  J. 
Lennox,  Our  Missions  in  South  Africa  (United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland)  (191 1).  J.  D.  Taylor,  The  American  Board 
Mission  in  South  Africa,  Seventy-Five  Years  (191 1).  A. 
Pratt,  The  Real  South  Africa  (191 3). 

211.  J.  Wells,  Stewart  of  Lovedale  (1899).  R.  Young,  African 
Wastes  Reclaimed  (1902).  C.  T.  Loram,  The  Education  of  the 
South  African  Native  (1917).  Negro  Education,  a  Study  of  the 
Private  and  Higher  Schools  for  the  Coloured  People  in  the 
United  States  (Government  Printing  Office,  191 7). 

212.  T.  T.  Matthews,  Thirty  Years  in  Madagascar.  P.  Don- 
caster,  Faithful  unto  Death,  William  and  Lucy  Johnson 
(1897).  E.  0.  McMahon,  Christian  Missions  in  Madagascar 
(1914).  J.  J.  K.  Fletcher,  The  Sign  of  the  Cross  on  Mada- 
gascar (1901).  Livre  d'or  de  la  mission  du  Lessuto  (1912). 
H.  Junod,  The  Life  of  a  South  African  Tribe  (1913).  S.  T. 
Plaatje,  Native  Life  in  South  Africa  before  and  since  the 
European  War.  M.  Junod,  "  God's  Ways  in  the  Bantu 
Soul,"  International  Review  of  Missions  (January,  1914), 
pp.  96  ff. 

213.  J.  Richter,  Das  deutsche  Kolonialreich  und  die  Mission  (1914). 
J.  Schmidlin,  Die  katholischen  Missionen  in  den  deutschen 
Schutzgebieten  (19 13).  Pfitzner  and  Wangermann,  Wilhelm 
Posselt  (1906).  P.  Groeschel,  Zehn  Jahre  chri  stitcher  Kultur- 
arbeit  in  deutsch  Ostafrika  (191 1).  M.  Schlunk,  Die  Nord- 
deutsche  Mission  in  Togo  (191 2).  R.  Axenfeld,  Kilste  und 
Inland,  deutsch  Ostafrika  (191 2).  M.  Wilde,  Schwartz  und 
Weiss  (1913). 

214.  J.  S.  Keltie,  The  Partition  of  Africa  (1895).  N.  D.  Harris, 
Intervention  and  Colonization  in  Africa  (191 4). 

215.  A.  J.  McDonald,  Trade,  Politics  and  Christianity  in  Africa 
and  the  East  (191 6).  C.  H.  Patton,  The  Lure  of  Africa 
(191 7).  M.  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  Southeast  Africa: 
a  Study  in  Sociology  (1911).  J.  H.  Harris,  Dawn  in  Darkest 
Africa,  with  an  Introduction  by  the  Earl  of  Cromer  (191 2). 
J.  du  Plessis,  Thrice  through  the  Dark  Continent  (1917). 


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CHAPTER   XH 

SECTION 

216.  E.  G.  Bourne,  Spain  in  America  (1904).  Narratives  of  the 
Career  of  Hernando  de  Soto  (1904).  E.  P.  Cheney,  The 
European  Background  of  American  History  (1904).  Cam- 
bridge Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  chaps,  i  and  ii,  pp.  1-66.  J. 
Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America  (1889). 
H.  Harrisse,  The  Discovery  of  North  America  (1892).  T. 
O' Gorman,  A  History  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  Stales  (1895).  J.  G.  Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Missions  among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States.  C.  R. 
Markham,  The  Life  of  Christopher  Columbus  (1892). 

217.  F.  A.  MacNutt,  Bartholomew  di  Las  Casas  (1909). 

218.  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  Mexico,  Vols.  X-XIV  of  his 
Collected  Works  (1883).  G.  B.  Winton,  A  New  Era  in  Old 
Mexico  (1905). 

219.  C.  R.  Markham  and  A.  H.  Keane,  South  America  (1899). 
J.  Bryce,  South  American  Observations  and  Impressions 
(191 2).  F.  G.  Calderon,  Latin  America,  Its  Rise  and 
Progress  (1913).  G.  Clemenceau,  South  America  Today 
(191 1).  W.  H.  Koebel,  In  Jesuit  Land:  the  Jesuit  Missions 
of  Paraguay  (191 2).  W.  E.  Hardenberg,  Putumayo,  the 
Devil's  Paradise  (191 2).  J.  F.  Woodruffe,  The  Upper 
Reaches  of  the  Amazon  (1914).  C.  R.  Markham,  The  History 
of  Peru  (1892).  D.  G.  Munro,  Five  Republics  of  Central 
America  (19 18).  R.  Young,  From  Cape  Horn  to  Panama 
(1900).  H.  W.  Brown,  Latin  America  (1901).  H.  P.  Beach, 
Protestant  Missions  in  South  America  (1907);  Renascent 
Latin  America  (19 16).  C.  R.  Markham,  Colonial  History  of 
South  America  (in  J.  Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History 
of  America  (1889). 

220.  J.  Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  Vol.  II, 
chap.  xi.  Catholic  Encyclopedia  (1907  ff.) ,  article,  "Missions  in 
the  United  States,"  X,  384.  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  Vol.  XVII  of  his  Collected  Works  (1889). 

221.  H.  H.  Bancroft,  The  Pacific  States  of  North  America,  Vols. 
XVIII-XX  of  his  Collected  Works  (1882).  F.  Patau,  Life 
and  Apostolic  Labors  of  the  Venerable  Father  Junipero  Serra 
(1787)  (translation,  1913). 


348  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

222.  F.  Parkman,  The  Jesuits  in  North  America  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  (ed.  1902);  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World 
(1865);  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West  (1879) 

E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I,  chap,  iv 
pp.  90-114.  J.  Winsor,  Cartier  to  Frontenac  (1894).  I.  J 
Cox,  The  Journeys  of  Rene  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de  La  Salle 
as  Related  by  His  Faithful  Lieutenant,  Henri  de  Tonty,  etc 
(1905).  E.  G.  Bourne,  The  Northmen  (1905).  Catholic  Ency- 
clopedia (1907  fi\),  article,  "Missions  in  Canada,"  X,  378  ff. 

223.  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  V,  chap,  i,  esp.  pp.  6-13; 
Vol.  VII,  chaps,  iii  and  iv,  pp.  70-143.  A.  G.  Bradley, 
The  Fight  with  France  for  North  America  (3d  ed.,  1908). 

F.  Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (1901).  J.  Winsor,  The 
Rival  Claimants  for  North  America,  1497-17 55  (1895).  A.  G. 
Bradley,  Wolfe  (1889). 

224.  J.  H.  Trumbull,  Origin  and  Early  Progress  of  Indian  Missions 
(1874).  The  Jesuit  Relations:  Travels  and  Explorations  of 
the  Jesuit  Missionaries  in  New  France,  16 10-17 91.  (Original 
French,  Latin,  and  Italian  Texts  with  English  translation. 
71  volumes,  1896-1901.) 

226.  E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I,  chaps,  x-xv, 
pp.  271-437,  pp.  485-537.  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of 
England.  M.  Dexter,  Story  of  the  Pilgrims.  C.  F.  Adams, 
Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts  History.  T.  Seccomb, 
article,  "Roger  Williams,"  in  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography.  E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States, 
Vol.  I,  chaps,  xvi-xvii,  pp.  438-84.  Cambridge  Modem 
History,  Vol.  VII  (1906),  chap,  i,  pp.  1-52,  chap,  ii,  pp.  53-69. 

228.  W.  Walker,  Ten  New  England  Leaders  (1901).  W.  O.  B. 
Allen  and  E.  McClure,  Two  Hundred  Years  of  the  History  of 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Christian  Knowledge  (1898). 
Cotton  Mather's  Magnolia  (1702) .  J.  H.  Trumbull,  Memorial 
History  of  Boston  (chapter  on  the  "Indian  Tongues,"  etc.) 
(1882).     J.  M.  Sherwood,  Memoirs  of  David  Brainerd  (1868). 

229.  E.  de  Schweinitz,  Life  and  Times  of  David  Zeisbcrger  (1871). 
C.  H.  Loskiel,  History  of  the  Mission  of  the  United  Brethren 
among   the  Indians   of  North  America  (translation,   1794)- 


REFERENCES  349 

SECTION 

W.  D.  Love,  Samson  Occom  and  the  Christian  Indians  (1900). 
A.  Caldicote,  The  Breaking  of  the  Dawn,  Moravian  Missions 
in  Jamaica  (1904).  S.  K.  Hutton,  Among  the  Eskimos  of 
Labrador  (191 2). 

230.  T.  E.  Leupp,  The  Indian  and  His  Problem  (1910).  Indian 
Affairs,  Laws  and  Treaties  (United  States),  1904.  H.  B. 
Grinnell,  The  Indians  of  Today  (1899).  M.  Eells,  Ten  Years 
of  Missionary  Work  among  the  Indians  at  Skokonnah  (1897). 
H.  B.  Whipple,  Lights  and  Shadows  of  a  Long  Episcopate 
(1899).  M.  A.  de  W.  Howe,  Life  and  Labors  of  Bishop  Hare 
(191 2).  E.  R.  Young,  By  Canoe  and  Dogtrain  (1898). 
J.  W.  Arctander,  The  Apostle  of  Alaska  (W.  Duncan  of  Metla- 
kahtla)  (1909).  S.  R.  Riggs,  Mary  and  I:  Forty  Years  among 
the  Sioux  (1880).  M.  Eells,  Father  Eells,  the  Result  of  Fifty-five 
years  of  Missionary  Labor  (1894).  H.  A.  Cody,  An  Apostle  of 
the  North:  the  Life  of  William  Carpenter  Bump  as.  K.  Hughes, 
Father  Lacombe,  the  Black  Robe  Voyageur,  Roman  Catholic 
Missionary  for  Sixty  Years  among  the  Indians  of  West  Canada. 
L.  F.  Jones,  A  Study  of  the  Thlingets  of  Alaska  (1914).  H. 
Stuck,  Ten  Thousand  Miles  with  a  Dog-Sled  (1914). 

231.  J.  F.  Fraser,  Australia,  the  Making  of  a  Nation  (1910).  The 
Statesman's  Year  Book  (191 6),  pp.  340-401.  B.  Spencer  and 
F.  J.  Gillen,  The  Native  Tribes  of  Central  Australia  (1904); 
Across  Australia  (191 2).  A.  Ward,  The  Miracle  of  Mapoon 
(1908).  G.  White,  Round  about  the  Torres  Straits,  a  Record 
of  Australian  Church  Missions  (1917).  H.  Pitts,  The  Aus- 
tralian Aboriginal  and  the  Christian  Church  (19 14). 

232.  A.  R.  Wallace,  Australasia  (1883).  The  Statesman's  Year 
Book  (191 6),  pp.  405-21.  C.  M.  Yonge,  Life  of  John 
Coleridge  Patteson  (1875).  W.  Williams,  Christianity  among 
the  New  Zealanders  (1866). 

233.  A.  Tilby,  Australasia  (191 2).  J.  Cook,  A  Voyage  Toward  the 
South  Pole  and  Round  the  World  (1777).  E.  S.  Armstrong,  A 
History  of  the  Melanesian  Mission  (1900).  A.  K.  Chignell, 
Twenty-one  Years  in  Papua,  a  History  of  the  English  Church 
Mission  in  New  Guinea  (1913).  J.  Williams,  Missionary 
Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  (1907).     R.  Lovett, 


350  THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

SECTION 

James  Chalmers  (1902).    J.  Paton,  John  G.  Paton,  Missionary 
to  the  New  Hebrides  (1889). 

234.  J.  Colwell,  A  Century  in  the  Pacific  (1914).  A.  W.  Murray, 
Forty  Years  of  Missionary  Work  in  Polynesia  and  New 
Guinea  (1875) ;  Martyrs  of  Polynesia  (1885).  D.  J.  Warneck, 
Filnfzig  Jahre  Batak-Mission  in  Sumatra  (191 1).  A.  K. 
Chignell,  An  Outpost  in  Papua  (191 1).  G.  Simon,  The 
Progress  and  Arrest  of  Islam  in  Sumatra  (191 2). 

235.  W.  R.  Castle,  Jr.,  Hawaii  Past  and  Present  (1913).  L.  H. 
Hallock,  Hawaii  under  King  Kalakaua  (1911).  O.H.  Gulick, 
The  Pilgrims  of  Hawaii  (191 8).  B.  M.  Brain,  The  Trans- 
formation of  Hawaii  (1898).  F.  H.  L.  Paton,  The  Kingdom 
of  the  Pacific  (1913).  Hiram  Bingham,  A  Residence  of 
Twenty  Years  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  (1849).  Titus  Coan, 
Life  in  Hawaii  (1882).  R.  Anderson,  The  Mission  of  the 
American  Board  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  (1870).  H.  H. 
Bancroft,  The  New  Pacific  (1900).  A.  R.  Colquohoun,  The 
Mastery  of  the  Pacific  (1902).  E.  H.  Gomes,  The  Sea  Dyaks 
of  Borneo  (1907).  D.  Paul,  Die  Mission  auf  den  deutschen 
Siid  See  Inseln  (1907).  The  Statesman's  Year  Book  (1916), 
pp.  650  ff.  J.  Foreman,  The  Philippine  Islands  (1906).  D. 
C.  Worcester,  The  Philippines  Past  and  Present  (1914). 
H.  M.  Wright,  Handbook  of  the  Philippines  (1909).  Report 
of  the  Philippine  Commission  (1900).  J.  B.  D evens,  An 
Observer  in  the  Philippines  (1905).  C.  de  W.  Willcox,  The 
Head  Hunters  of  Northern  Luzon  (191 2).  J.  A.  Robertson, 
Notes  from  the  Philippines  (1913). 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Africa  71-76,  251-81;  Belgian 
possessions  in  74,  267,  276-77; 
British  possessions  in  268,  276- 
77;  discovery  and  exploration 
33  y  256-62;  Dutch  possessions 
in  72,  254;  early  Christianiza- 
tion  of  Northern  214;  exploi- 
tation of  252,  267,  275-78; 
French  possessions  in  273,  276- 
77;  geography  of  252;  German 
possessions  in  275-78;  indus- 
trial and  social  conditions  75-76, 
269-71,  280;  missions  to  71-73, 
253-56,  259-76;  Moors  in  251; 
Moslem  propaganda  71,  244; 
outlook  of  278-81;  partition 
°f  73-74,  276-78;  Portuguese 
possessions  in  71-72,  253-54, 
256,  277;  slave  trade  71-72, 
73,  75,  252-57,  261,  abolition 
of  257;  South  Africa,  268- 
7i 

Alaska,  Russian  mission  to  68 

Aleutian  Islands,  Russian  mission 
to  68 

Algiers  251 

American  Bible  Society  103,  104, 
222 

American  Board,  founding  of 
96-97;  in  China  187-88;  in 
India  118;  in  Japan  153-54, 
158,  161-62,  167-70;  in  Mexico 
288;  in  Persia  242;  in  Turkey 
220-23,  225-26,  230-32 

Ancestor  worship  178-80 

Arabia,  missionary  work  in  245- 
46;  revolt  from  Ottoman 
Empire  245 

Arabs,  conquests  of  215 

Arizona  289-90 

Armenia,  Christianization  of  214 


Armenians:  excommunication  from 
Armenian  church  223;  mission 
work  for  222-24;  persecution 
of  224-25,  235-36,  239 

Australia  306-7 

Australian  Board  of  Missions  308 

Balkan  States  31,  237-38 

Balkan  Wars  238 

Baptist  Mission  Society  (of  Great 
Britain),  formation  of  94;  work 
in  India  115 

Baptists,  American,  founding  of 
Missionary  Union  97;  mission 
to  Mexico  288,  to  the  Congo 
268 

Basel  Society  96;  mission  to 
Gold  Coast  265,  to  Kamerun, 
275,  to  the  Tanti  274 

Beirut:  medical  work  231-32; 
Presbyterian  mission  232;  Syr- 
ian Protestant  College  228-30 

Belgium:  missionary  work  in 
Africa  267-68;  possessions  in 
Africa  61,  74,  267,  276-77 

Bentinck,  Lord  William  116-20 

Berry,  Dr.  161-63 

Bible  societies  101-4,  222 

Bible,  translations  of  102-4;  into 
Armenian  221;  into  Bechuana 
256;  into  Bengali  116;  into 
Bulgarian  221-22;  into  Chinese 
186;  into  dialects  of  American 
Indians  302;  into  dialects  of 
India  116;  into  Hindi  115;  into 
Japanese  152,  159;  into  lan- 
guages of  Pacific  islands  309, 
315;  into  Persian  115;  into 
Turkish  222 

Bliss,  Daniel  228,  230 

Boxer  uprising  185,  196-99 


353 


354 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 


Brainerd,  David  303 
Bridgman,  Elijah  187-88 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
102-4 

British  East  India  Company  37, 
39,  42,  43,  49;  chaplains  in 
India  111;  hostility  toward 
missions  118;  in  China  181-82; 
revocation  of  charter  119,  122 

Buddhism  177;  in  Japan  141, 
144,  160,  173 

Bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI,  26, 

285 
Byzantine  period  214-15 

California  290-91 

Canton  178,  181,  182,  186,  187, 
188,  192 

Carey,  William  94,  115-17 

Carrier,  Jacques  292 

China  53-54,  177-207;  Christian 
literature  204-5;  early  Chris- 
tian influences  in  177-79;  edu- 
cation 191-93,  201-3;  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs  194;  last 
years  of  old  regime  194-96; 
Manchu  conquest  1 79-8 1 ;  med- 
ical work  186-89,  193,  203-4; 
missions:  Protestant  181,  186- 
93>  I97~98,  200-201,  Roman 
Catholic  177-80, 197-98;  opium 
wars  181-83;  persecution  of 
Christians  under  Kang  Hsi  1 79- 
80;  recent  events  205-7;  Tai- 
ping  Rebellion  183-84;  Treaty 
of  Tientsin  185,  188;  Western 
civilization  in  41,  49-50,  53-54, 
199-200 

China  Inland  Mission  189-91 

China  Medical  Board  204 

Church  Missionary  Society:  found- 
ing of  47,  93,  114;  work  in: 
Afghanistan  and  Beluchistan 
243,  China  191-92,  Egypt  244- 
45,  India  109,  1 14-15,  New 
Zealand  307-9,  Nigeria  265-66, 
Turkey  220,  224,  Uganda  262-65 

Coillard,  Francois  273 


Columbus,  Christopher  25,  285 

Confucianism:  in  China  205-6; 
in  Japan  141,  144,  160 

Congo  253-54,  267-68 

Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide 
92-93 

Congregational  missions.  See 
American  Board,  London  Mis- 
sionary Society 

Constantinople  io-n;  capture 
of,  by  Turks  31,  216;  mission 
press  221-22;  missionary  work 
for  Armenians  222;  Robert 
College  225-28 

Constantinople  College  230-31 

Cortes,  Hernando  286-87 

Crowther,  Bishop  Samuel  265-66 

Dalhousie,  Lord  120 

Davis  153 

De  Forest  153,  159 

de  Propaganda  Fide  92-93 

Denmark,  explorations,  conquest, 
and  trade  13-14,  27 

di  Nobili  no 

Discovery:  voyages  of,  in  Pacific 
33;  in  Western  Hemisphere 
25-27 

Dominicans:  in  Africa  254;  in 
China  178-80;  in  India  109; 
in  Japan  145 

Doshisha  154-55,  168-70 

Dowager  Empress  185,  195-96, 
197,  199,  206 

Duff  1 1 7-18 

Duncan,  William  305 

Dutch.     See  Holland 

Dutch  East  India  Company  254 

Eastern  churches   213-14,  216-20 

Edict  of  Toleration  142,  146, 151 

Education:  in  Africa,  industrial 
271-72;  in  China:  Christian 
192-93,  202-3,  government  201- 
2;     in    Egypt    244;     in    India 


INDEX 


355 


117-18;  in  Japan  153-55,  158- 
59,  166,  168-70;  in  Turkey  221, 
225-31 
Egypt,  administration  of,  under 
Great  Britain  244;  missionary 
work  in  243-45 

Eliot,  John  301-2 

Eskimos,  Russian  mission  to  68 

Extra-territoriality  in  Japan  149- 

So 

Fiji  Islands  317 

Florida  289 

France:  colonial  empire  of  26, 
37,  39,  4?,  61,  72,  73,  113, 
292-94;  discovery,  exploration, 
and  commerce  n,  26,  29,  292- 
96;  Huguenot  settlements  32; 
missions  in:  China  179,  the 
Congo  268,  Madagascar  273- 
74,  Morocco  and  Algiers  251, 
North  America  293-97,  South 
Africa  273;  rivalry  with  Great 
Britain  37,  39,  113,  294 

Franciscans  11,  92;  in  Africa  254; 
in  America  64,  287,  293;  in 
China  177;  in  India  109;  in 
Japan  145 

Francke  95,  in 

Geddie,  John  310-11 

German    missions    96,    170,    241, 

274-76.      See   also   Moravians, 

Pietists 
Germany,  colonial  empire  of  40, 

61,  73-74,  195,   238,   275,   276, 

277-78 

Goa  28,  92,  109,  177 

Goodell  221 

Gordon,  Charles  George  75,  184, 
263,  279 

Great  Britain,  colonial  empire  of 
13,  32-33,  37-43,  Si,  61,  72- 
74,  113-14,  119-22,  132-34, 
243-44,  268-69,  276-79,  297- 
300,  306;  discoveries,  explora- 
tion, and  trade  13,  25,  26,  29, 
33-34,  37,  113,  256-62,  306; 
rivalry  with  France  37,  39,  113 


Great  War  54-55,  238-39 
Greek  church  214 
Greene  153 
Giitzlaff,  Karl  187 

Hall  96-97 

Hamlin,  Cyrus  225-27 

Hart,  Sir  Robert  194 

Hastings,  Warren  38,  42 

Hawaii  313-17 

Hepburn,  James  152 

Hervey  Islands  312 

Hideyoshi  144-45 

Hinduism  79-80;  reform  and 
revival  of  136-38 

History,  place  of  missions  in  17,  18 

Holland:      conquests    and    trade 

13-14,  26^  28-29,  72,  113,  147, 

149;    missionary  work  in  Java 

241 

Holy  Catholic  church  of  Japan 
170 

Holy  Orthodox  church  214,  219; 
missions  of  68,  172 

Huguenots:  mission  in  Congo  268; 
settlements  in  America  32,  in 
South  Africa  257.  See  also 
Paris  Evangelical  Mission 
Society 

Humanitarianism  19-20,  42-44 
Hung  Siu-chuan  183-84 

Imperial  Maritime  Customs  193- 

94 
Imperial  Rescript  167-68 

India  51,  109-38;  attitude  toward 
Western  civilization  41,  51, 
121,  125-29;  British  in  37-39, 
51,  113-14,  119-22,  131-34; 
caste  125-27;  Dutch  in  113; 
education  131-34;  French  in 
37,  39;  industrial  conditions 
i3°"32;  intellectual  movement 
1 3  7~38;  language  127-28;  mis- 
sions 96-97,  109-12,  1 14-19, 
122-25,  129-34,  241-42;  Mogul 
Empire    11 2-13;     Moslems    in 


356 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 


126-27,  241-42;  Mutiny  119- 
22;  philanthropy  and  reform 
134-35;  progress  of  Christianity 
128-30;  reform  and  revival 
of  Hindu  religions  136-38; 
sectarianism  124-25 

Indians,  American  62,  64;  mis- 
sions to:  Protestant  300-306, 
Roman  Catholic  285-93,  295- 
97,  Russian  68 

International  College  at  Smyrna 
231 

Ishii  Juji  163 

Islam  211-47;  influence  of  sultan 
in  211-12;  missionary  propa- 
ganda of  246;  outlook  of  246- 
47;  present  extent  of  211; 
spread  of  30-31,  214-16 

Italy,  colonial  expansion  of  40, 
61,  74,  211 

Iyeyasu  145 

Japan  52-53,  141-73;.  attitude 
toward  Western  civilization  49- 

50,  52-53,  141-42,  155-58,  164- 
68;  Christian  churches  159-60, 
170-72;  Christian  schools  154- 
55,  158-59,  166,  168-70;  closing 
of  146-47;  conference  of  reli- 
gions 173;  Doshisha  154-55, 
168-70;  Edict  of  Toleration 
142,146,151;  Imperial  Rescript 
167-68;  medical  work  152, 
161-62;  Meiji  era  155-58;  mis- 
sions: Protestant  151-53,  158- 
64,  170-72,  Roman  Catholic 
142-46,  150-51,  162,  171772, 
Russian  68,  172-73;  Neesima 
153-55;  opening  of,  to  Western 
civilization  141-42,  147-49; 
persecution  of  Christians  141, 
145-46;  philanthropy  163-64; 
reaction  vs.  Western  civili- 
zation 164-69;  revival  of 
ancient  faiths  79-80 

Jesuits  11,  47,  90-92;  college  at 
Tokyo  172;  missions  to:  Africa 
254,  America  64,  287-88,  292- 
93,  295-97,  Batavia  241,  China 
178-80,    India    1 00-11,    Japan 


141-45;  University  of  St.  Joseph 

at  Beirut,  230 

Judson  96-97,  1 18-19 

Kang  Hsi  179-81 
Kumi-ai  churches  159-60,  170 
Kwang  Hsu  185,  195-96,  206 
Kyoto  161,  169-70 

Las  Casas,  Bartholomew  285-86 

Liberia  255 

Li  Ma-tow  178 

Livingstone,  David  73,  258-62 

London  Missionary  Society, 
founding  of  47,  94;  in  Africa 
256,  260-61;  in  Australia  307; 
in  China  186,  188-89;  in 
Madagascar  273;  in  South  Sea 
Islands  311-13 

Lovedale  271-72 

Loyola  91,  92 

Lucar,  Cyril  66,  219 

Lullus,  Raimundus  251 

Madagascar  273-74 

Malaysia  241 

Manchus  179, 181, 183-85, 195-97, 
199,  206;  overthrow  of  206 

Maoris  307-9 

Marquette,  Pere  294,  296 

Martyn,  Henry  115,  242 

Medical  missions:  to  China  187; 
to  Japan  152,  161-62;  to  the 
Hausas  266;   to  Turkey  231-33 

Meiji  era  155-58 

Melanesia  309-11 

Methodism  48 

Methodist  missions  97;  in  India 
123;   in  Japan  170-71 

Mexico  63,  285,  286-87,   289-90 
Ming  dynasty  179,  180,  183 
Moffat,  Robert  256 
Mohammedan.    See  Islam,  Mos- 
lems 


INDEX 


357 


Moravians  47,  87,  95-96;  missions 
to:  Africa  72,  254,  274,  America 
303-4,  Australia  307 

Morocco  251 

Morrison,  Robert  181,  186 

Moslems:  in  India  126-27;  mis- 
sions to  240-46;  outside  Otto- 
man Empire  240-46.  See  also 
Islam 

Mtesa  262-63 

Mutiny,  Indian  119,  121-23 

Mwanga  263-64 

Nagasaki  Christian  community 
144-46,  151 

Nanking  178,  183,  192 
Neesima  153-55,  169 
Negroes  in  America  62,  64 
Nestorians  109,  177,  214,  242 
New  Hebrides  310-11,  313 
New  Mexico  289-90 

New  Zealand,  discoveries  in  33; 
missions  to  307-9 

Nicolai,  Archimandrite  68,  172 

Nigeria  265-67 

Nobunaga  143-44 

Northern  Europe,  early  missionary 
work  in  9-10 

Opium  wars  181-83 

Orient:  attitude  toward  West 
40-41,  49754,  5.8;  effect  of 
Western  civilization  on  79-83; 
religious  unrest  in  81-82;  spread 
of  Western  civilization  in  49-58, 
61-62;  Y.M.C.A.  in  100.  See 
also  China,  India,  Japan,  Otto- 
man Empire 

Osmans  216 

Ottoman  Empire  51-52,  211-40; 
ancient  Christian  churches  213- 
20,  222-23;  attitude  toward 
West  49,  51-52;  conquests  31; 
decline  of  211-12,  233,  238-39; 
educational  work  in  225-31; 
extent  of  211;  in  the  Great 
War     238-39;      medical    work 


23T~33;  missions  to  212-13 
21 6-33;  persecution  of  Arme- 
nians 223-25,^  235-36,  239 
present  situation  in  239-40 
problem  of  missions  to  216-20 
222-24;  relations  with  Euro- 
pean nations  233-39;  revolu- 
tion of  1908-9  51-52,  236-38 
subject  populations  234-36 
Young  Turk  movement  234 


Paris  Evangelical  Mission  Society 
96;  in  the  Congo  26S;  in  Mada- 
gascar 274;   in  South  Africa  273 

Parker,  Peter  187 

Paton,  John  310-n 

Patteson,  John  Coleridge  309-10 

Peking  177,  185,  189,  191,  192, 
197-98;   Russian  mission  to  68 

Periods  in  the  Christian  movement 

5-iS 
Perry,  Commodore  147-48 
Persia  222,  242 

Pietists  47,  87,  94-95;  in  Africa 
73;   in  India  111-12 

Pizarro  285,  2S6,  287 

Plymouth  298 

Polynesia  311-13 

Portugal:  conquests  and  trade  n, 
25-28,  71-72,113,142,145-47, 
180,  256,  287-88;  missions  in: 
Africa  253-54,  India  109-10 

Presbyterian  missions:  founding 
of  97;  to  Brazil  2S8;  to  India 
117-18;  to  Japan  152,  158,  170; 
to  Liberia  255;  to  Persia  242 

Propagation,  Congregation  of  the 

92-93 
Protestant    Episcopal    church    of 

United  States;    missions  of  97, 

152-53,  288-89 

Ram  Mohan  Ray  118,  138 
Rationalism,  age  of  29-30 
Reformed  Dutch  church,  missions 

of  97,  151-52,  170,  246 
Ricci,  Matteo  178,  182 


358 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY 


Riggs,  Elias  221-22 

Riggs,  Stephen  305 

Robert  College  225-28 

Roman  Catholic  missions:  char- 
acter of  12-13,  46-47;  organi- 
zations 90-93;  work  in:  Africa 
72,  251,  253-54,  265,  267,  273, 
Batavia  241,  China  177-80, 
India  100-11,  130,  Japan  142- 
46,  150-51,  162,  171-72,  Otto- 
man Empire  212-13,  218-19, 
230 

Russia:  expansion  of  40,  65-68; 
missions  68,  172-73,  242-43; 
religious  history  of  66;  revolu- 
tion in  66-67 

Sandwich  Islands  313-17 

Schall,  Adam  178-79 

Schwartz  112,  114 

Scotland,  missions  94, 11 7-18,  245, 
272,  303 

Seljuks  215-16 

Selwyn,  George  308-9 

Sepoy  Rebellion.  See  Mutiny, 
Indian 

Serra,  Father  Junipero  291 

Shimbara,  Christian  revolt  of  146 

Shinto  141,  144,  160,  173 

Sierra  Leone  255 

Sillery  295 

Slave  trade,  African  71-72,  73, 
75,  252,  254,  255,  257,  261; 
abolition  of  75,  257 

Smyrna,  International  College  at 
231 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 

Gospel,  founding  of  93, 114,  302; 

in^ Africa   72,   254-55,  273;    in 

China     191-92;     in     Ottoman 

Empire  224 

Society  Islands  311 

Society  of  Jesus.    See  Jesuits 

Sofala  254 

South  America  63,  287-89 

South  Sea  Islands  33 


Spain :  discoveries,  explorations, 
and  conquests  n,  25-28,  285- 
87,  289-91;  disruption  of  colo- 
nial empire  288;  missions  285- 
86,  289-91 

Spener  95 

Stanley  258,  262-63,  267,  279 

Sumitada  144 

Syrian  Protestant  College  228-3C 

Tai-ping  Rebellion  183-84 
Tatars,  65,  180,  183 
Taylor,  Hudson  190 
Thompson,  Thomas  254-55 
Tientsin,  Treaty  of  185,  188 
Tokoname  173 

Tokyo  162;   Jesuit  college  at  172 
Turkey.    See  Ottoman  Empire 
Tzu  Hsi  185,  195-96,  197,  199,  206 

Uganda  262-65 

United  Church  of  Japan  170 

United  States,  expansion  of  40, 316 

Verbeck,  Guido  151-52 

Washburn,  George  227-28 

Wesley  48 

Whipple,  Bishop  305 

Whitman,  Marcus  304 

Williams,  Channing  Moore  152-53 

Williams,  John  311-12 

Williams,  S.  Wells  188 

Women,  missionary  work  of  and 
for  98-99 

Xavier,  Francis  91-92,  109-10, 
142-43,  177 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion 99-101;  in  Russo-Japanese 
war  164 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associ- 
ation 101 

Yuan  Shi-kai  198,  206-7 

Zeisberger,  David  303 
Zinzendorf  95 


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